This document provides an overview of radiographic film and film processing. It describes the structure of radiographic film including the film base, emulsion, and super coating. It discusses the types of films and sizes used. The document outlines the film processing steps of development, fixing, washing and drying. It discusses factors that can affect film density and artifacts that may appear on radiographic films.
THIS PRESENTAION CONNSISTING OF X RAY ARTIFACTS AND THERE APROPRETE CORRECTIVE MEASURES WELL.AND EXPLAINED EACH AND EVERY TERM MAGNIFFICILENTLLY.DIFFERNCE BETWEEN ERRORS AND ARTIFACTS .AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS
ITS COMMON CAUSES
"A latent image is an invisible image that is created during the imaging process in medical radiology."
Importance: "Understanding latent images is crucial in medical radiology as it forms the foundation for diagnostic imaging techniques."
State the objectives of this presentation: "Today, we will explore the formation of latent images, their role in various imaging modalities, and their significance in the field of radiology."
THIS PRESENTAION CONNSISTING OF X RAY ARTIFACTS AND THERE APROPRETE CORRECTIVE MEASURES WELL.AND EXPLAINED EACH AND EVERY TERM MAGNIFFICILENTLLY.DIFFERNCE BETWEEN ERRORS AND ARTIFACTS .AND CLASSIFICATION OF ARTIFACTS
ITS COMMON CAUSES
"A latent image is an invisible image that is created during the imaging process in medical radiology."
Importance: "Understanding latent images is crucial in medical radiology as it forms the foundation for diagnostic imaging techniques."
State the objectives of this presentation: "Today, we will explore the formation of latent images, their role in various imaging modalities, and their significance in the field of radiology."
Intraoral radiographic processing and faultsRuchika Garg
Every radiographic examination should produce radiographs of optimal diagnostic quality.
Radiographs should record the complete area of interest and should have minimal possible distortion.
Improper positioning of receptor and x-ray tube and faulty processing can adversely affect the quality of a properly exposed radiograph.
Thus close attention should be paid to optimize these parameters.
Photolithography, also called optical lithography or UV lithography, is a process used in microfabrication to pattern parts on a thin film or the bulk of a substrate (also called a wafer). It uses light to transfer a geometric pattern from a photomask (also called an optical mask) to a photosensitive (that is, light-sensitive) chemical photoresist on the substrate. A series of chemical treatments then either etches the exposure pattern into the material or enables deposition of a new material in the desired pattern upon the material underneath the photoresist. In complex integrated circuits, a CMOS wafer may go through the photolithographic cycle as many as 50 times.
Photolithography shares some fundamental principles with photography in that the pattern in the photoresist etching is created by exposing it to light, either directly (without using a mask) or with a projected image using a photomask. This procedure is comparable to a high precision version of the method used to make printed circuit boards. Subsequent stages in the process have more in common with etching than with lithographic printing. This method can create extremely small patterns, down to a few tens of nanometers in size. It provides precise control of the shape and size of the objects it creates and can create patterns over an entire surface cost-effectively. Its main disadvantages are that it requires a flat substrate to start with, it is not very effective at creating shapes that are not flat, and it can require extremely clean operating conditions. Photolithography is the standard method of printed circuit board (PCB) and microprocessor fabrication. Directed self-assembly is being evaluated as an alternative to photolithography
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
CRISPR-Cas9, a revolutionary gene-editing tool, holds immense potential to reshape medicine, agriculture, and our understanding of life. But like any powerful tool, it comes with ethical considerations.
Unveiling CRISPR: This naturally occurring bacterial defense system (crRNA & Cas9 protein) fights viruses. Scientists repurposed it for precise gene editing (correction, deletion, insertion) by targeting specific DNA sequences.
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Global launch of the Healthy Ageing and Prevention Index 2nd wave – alongside...ILC- UK
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Dr Hans Groth, Chairman of the Board, World Demographic & Ageing Forum
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How many patients does case series should have In comparison to case reports.pdfpubrica101
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Antibiotic Stewardship by Anushri Srivastava.pptxAnushriSrivastav
Stewardship is the act of taking good care of something.
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
WHO launched the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) in 2015 to fill knowledge gaps and inform strategies at all levels.
ACCORDING TO apic.org,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
ACCORDING TO pewtrusts.org,
Antibiotic stewardship refers to efforts in doctors’ offices, hospitals, long term care facilities, and other health care settings to ensure that antibiotics are used only when necessary and appropriate
According to WHO,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a systematic approach to educate and support health care professionals to follow evidence-based guidelines for prescribing and administering antimicrobials
In 1996, John McGowan and Dale Gerding first applied the term antimicrobial stewardship, where they suggested a causal association between antimicrobial agent use and resistance. They also focused on the urgency of large-scale controlled trials of antimicrobial-use regulation employing sophisticated epidemiologic methods, molecular typing, and precise resistance mechanism analysis.
Antimicrobial Stewardship(AMS) refers to the optimal selection, dosing, and duration of antimicrobial treatment resulting in the best clinical outcome with minimal side effects to the patients and minimal impact on subsequent resistance.
According to the 2019 report, in the US, more than 2.8 million antibiotic-resistant infections occur each year, and more than 35000 people die. In addition to this, it also mentioned that 223,900 cases of Clostridoides difficile occurred in 2017, of which 12800 people died. The report did not include viruses or parasites
VISION
Being proactive
Supporting optimal animal and human health
Exploring ways to reduce overall use of antimicrobials
Using the drugs that prevent and treat disease by killing microscopic organisms in a responsible way
GOAL
to prevent the generation and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Doing so will preserve the effectiveness of these drugs in animals and humans for years to come.
being to preserve human and animal health and the effectiveness of antimicrobial medications.
to implement a multidisciplinary approach in assembling a stewardship team to include an infectious disease physician, a clinical pharmacist with infectious diseases training, infection preventionist, and a close collaboration with the staff in the clinical microbiology laboratory
to prevent antimicrobial overuse, misuse and abuse.
to minimize the developme
2. OUT LINE
• Introduction
• Structure of a radiographic film
• Types and sizes of radiographic films
• Latent image formation
• Film processing
• Factors affecting film processing
• Artifacts
• Conclusion
• References
3. INTRODUCTION
• A radiographic film is use to capture and decode information carried
by the x ray beam after passing through the body.
• Direct exposure of film will require very large patient x-ray doses.
• X-rays are there fore converted to light by the intensifying screen
which then exposes the x-ray film.
• The film needs to be processed
6. STRUCTURE OF A RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
• Film base: typically 0.2mm thick
• Adhesive layer
• Emulsion: 5-10 micro meter
• Super coating
7. Film base:
• Main function is to provide support for the fragile photographic
emulsion.
• it must not produce a visible pattern or absorb too much light when
the radiograph is viewed.
• The flexibility, thickness and strength of the base must allow for ease
of processing and produce a radiograph that feels right when
handled.
8. Types of film base
• Glass plate.
• Cellulose nitrate.
• Cellulose triacetate.
• polyester; improved dimensional stability and much stronger.
• Blue tint: easier to look at and less eye strain.
9. Emulsion:
• Coated on both sides of the base.
• Composed of silver halide suspended in the gelatin.
• Gelatin
• Silver halide: AgBr - 90%, AgI - 10% in form of crystals or grains. Each
containing about 1M to 10M silver ions.
• Silver sulfide usually located on the surface of the crystal serves as
the sensitivity speck that traps electrons to begin formation of the
latent image centers.
13. • Clumps of the silver atoms are termed latent image centers, and are
the sites at which the developing process will cause visible amount of
metallic silver to be deposited.
• At least two atoms of silver must be present at a latent image center
to make a grain developable.
14. Super coating
• Thin layer made commonly of gelatin.
• Protect the emulsion from mechanical damage.
15. Direct x-ray exposure:
• Effect is caused by the electrons emitted from photoelectric
absorption or Compton scattering.
• The manner in which the energy is of these electrons is imparted to
the photographic emulsion is complex.
• The final result is the freeing of electrons from the bromide ion,
producing bromine atom and an electron that can move to the
trapping site.
16. • Most of the energy of the absorbed photon is lost esp. to the gelatin.
• Only 3 to 10% is used to produce silver.
• Sensitivity varies significantly with the KVp of the x-ray beam.
17. TYPES OF X-RAY FILM
• Types of x-ray film:
1. Based on coating
• Single emulsion film e.g. In mammography.
• Double emulsion e.g. in conventional radiography
2. Based on sensitivity
• Ortho-chromatic: Blue sensitive films e.g. conventional films and
green sensitive films.
• Poly or panchromatic
18. 3. Based on use of screen
• Non screen type e.g. dental films
• Screen type
a. Single screen
b. Double screen
19. Film sizes:
• 10 x 8 inch (18 x 24 cm)
• 12 x 10 “ ( 24 x 30 cm)
• 12 x 15 “ (30 x 40 cm)
• 14 x 14 “ (35 x 35 cm)
• 14 x 17 “ (35 x 43 cm)
21. Types of processing
Manual and automatic
1. Manual:
• The film is processed manually.
The developer, rinser, fixer and
washer are put in separate
compartments.
• The film is then dried using a
drier.
23. 2. Automatic:
• Film is processed using an
automatic film processor.
• The film is fed into the input
chute of the processor and
shuttled in to the developer,
fixer, wash tank and then dried.
24. OTHER TYPES OF PROCESSING
• Rapid processing:
• The normal time it takes to develop a film is about 90secs.
• In rapid processing, the time is reduced to 45secs.
• Usually occurs in emergency settings.
• Temperature is raised to 30degC or concentration of the developer
increase.
Extended processing:
• The development time is increased to about 120secs.
• Usually used in mammography it reduces radiation to the patient.
25. DEVELOPEMENT
Development:
• A chemical process that amplifies the latent image by a factor of
millions to form visible silver pattern.
• The basic reaction is reduction of the silver ion to black metallic silver.
• The developer is the reducing agent.
• Initiated at the latent image speck.
• The role of the silver atoms in the in the latent image is to catalyze
the reduction of the silver ions in the grains by the developing
chemicals.
26. • The silver in a grain that does not contain a latent image can be
reduced by the developer but at a much slower rate.
• Development should be discontinued when the differential between
exposed developed grains and unexposed undeveloped grains is at
maximum.
27. Constituents of a developing solution:
1. The developing agents - Hydroquinone with either phenidone or
metol.
2. An alkali- to adjust the pH
3. Preservatives- sodium sulfite
4. Restrainers, or antifogants.
28.
29. Alkali:
• Adjust the pH which affects the developing power of the agent.
• Serves as a buffer to control the hydrogen ions liberated.
• Typical alkalis used include; sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate.
30. Sodium sulfite:
Serves two functions
1. Preservative; it decrease the rate of oxidation of the developing
agents esp. hydroquinone
2. It reacts with the oxidation products of the developing agents to
form colorless soluble sulfonates.
32. Rinsing:
• The film is rinsed to remove the developing solution before
proceeding to the fixing solution.
33. • Fixing:
• The process through which the undeveloped silver halide in the
emulsion is removed.
• The solubility of the silver halide in solution is controlled by the
concentration of the silver and halide ions.
• Silver bromide is only slightly soluble in water
• Silver ion x bromide ion = constant
• The function of the fixing agent is to form water soluble complexes in
which silver ions are tightly bound.
34. • Agent used is thiosulfate ( sodium or ammonium).
Silver bromide + sodium thiosulfate > silver thiosulfate + sodium Br
• Hardener in the solution hardens the gelatin, reduces its swelling
making it tougher and more resistant to abrasion.
35. Washing:
• Serves to remove the fixing chemicals.
• In incomplete washing, the retained sodium thiosulfate will react with
the silver image to form brown silver sulfide causing the x-ray film to
turn brown.
• Tap water is used as the washing medium.
36. • Drying:
• All the surface water and most of that retained in the emulsion is
removed.
• Dry air with low humidity is used.
37. • Replenishment:
• To maintain the concentration of the developing agent, preservative
and bromine and pH at constant level.
• Replenishment solution is free of bromide, contains alkaline agents
and buffers and the depleted preservatives and developing agents.
38. • Silver recovery:
• Silver is a toxic heavy metal and the final processed film contains only
about half the silver contained in the original emulsion.
• The silver is removed from the fixer solution by the electrolytic
recovery system attached to the waste line of the fixer tank.
• The recovered silver can then be sold to the commercial companies.
39. Factors affecting film processing
1. Film density
A. Increased film density
Too long time in the developer.
High temperature of processing solution.
Incorrectly mixed developer.
B. Decrease film density.
Too short time in the developer.
Low temperature of processing solution.
Exhausted developer.
40. 3. Fogging
Age fogging: use of very old film
Safe light fogging: unmatched safe light to the film is used.
Chemical fogging: prolong stay in the developer, high temperature,
faulty composition, contamination.
41. Ideal conditions for film processing
• Temperature: 18-20 degC.
• Humidity: 40-60%.
• Safety light: film is designed to be insensitive to specific wave lengths
of the light spectrum.
42. ARTIFACTS
• An artifact is any unwanted density not representing the patient’s
anatomy.
• Presents in a variety of ways including abnormal shadows or
degraded image quality.
43. Sources of artefacts
• Patient.
• During radiographic exposure.
• During film processing.
• When the film is being handled.
45. Exposure artifacts
Associated with the manner in which the radiographer conducts the
examination.
Poor screen film contact.
Improper positioning of the patient and collimation.
Patient motion.
Double exposure.
46. • Processing artifacts:
Occurs during processing of the radiographic film.
Chemical spots – occur if any chemical splashed or transferred by
wet fingers to the undeveloped film.
Dark spots – indicates either water or developer on the film before
processing
Light or undeveloped spots indicates fixer on the film before
processing.
57. CONCLUSION
• Film-screen radiography and film processing provides the basis of
radiography.
• Although largely replaced by digital radiography, they are essential
tools that should be learnt and understood well since they are still
being used in many centers.
58. REFERENCES
• Thomas S. Currey, James E. Dowdey, Robert C. Murray JR, “Christensen’s
Physics of diagnostic imaging”, 4th edition, 1990, ISBN 0-8121-1310-1.
• Jerrold T,J.Anthony, The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging.
• Radiopedia.org- accessed several times.
• Radiology assistant.org- accessed several times.
