Faults types
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This document discusses different types of faults that occur due to brittle deformation of the Earth's crust. It describes normal faults which form rift valleys, reverse/thrust faults where older rocks are thrust over younger rocks, and strike-slip faults where the rock on one side of the fault moves horizontally past the other side in a left or right lateral motion. Examples given include the East African Rift valley formed by normal faults, reverse faults in Japan and thrust faults in Scotland.
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Earth's outer shell is divided into tectonic plates that slowly move over the mantle below. Plates interact at boundaries where they either converge and collide, causing volcanoes and earthquakes, diverge and form rift valleys and ocean ridges, or slide past each other along transform boundaries, also producing earthquakes. The movement of these plates over geological time scales shapes the earth's surface features and geography.
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Fault
A fault is a break or fracture between two blocks of rocks in response to stress.
One block has moved relative to the other block.
The surface along which the blocks move is called a fault plane.
Faulting produced the earthquakes.
Thus earthquakes may occur because:
a) Rocks are initially broken to produce a fault.
b) Movement or re-activation of an already existing fault.
Faults
Faults are fractures in rock where there has been relative movement between the two sides. The fault plane is the surface where displacement occurs. The hanging wall is the rock above the fault plane, and the foot wall is below. Slip can be strike slip along the fault strike, dip slip along the dip, or oblique. Faults are classified based on movement, direction of slip, and geometry. Common types are normal faults where the hanging wall moves down, reverse faults where it moves up, and strike-slip faults where movement is horizontal. Faults can impact engineering by weakening foundations and providing pathways for water.
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Fault
A fault is a break or fracture between two blocks of rocks in response to stress.
One block has moved relative to the other block.
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Thus earthquakes may occur because:
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1) Divergent boundaries occur at spreading centers where new crust is created and plates move apart, such as at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
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Transform boundaries
Transform boundaries cause earthquakes and tsunamis when tectonic plates slide past one another. An earthquake in Japan in 2012 occurred when two continental plates slid along a transform boundary on land. An underwater earthquake at a transform boundary in Thailand generated a tsunami, as the sliding of two oceanic plates under the sea set off the massive waves. Transform boundaries can produce earthquakes both on land and under water, and the latter can then trigger destructive tsunamis.
Fold
This document defines folds and describes their key elements and classification. Folds are shapes or volume changes in rock layers caused by deformation. They indicate stress and can be described geometrically. Folds are classified based on attributes like their interlimb angle, symmetry, position, and isogon characteristics. Gentle folds have interlimb angles from 180 to 120 degrees, while tight folds are from 30 to 0 degrees. Symmetric folds have symmetry planes, while asymmetric folds are monoclinal. Anticlines fold upwards and synclines fold downwards. The document also discusses methods for constructing fold profiles.
Transform Plate Boundaries
This document discusses tectonic plates and transform plate boundaries. It notes that tectonic plates are large pieces of rock that make up Earth's crust, and there are two main types - oceanic and continental plates. At transform boundaries, the plates move horizontally past one another, driven by convection currents in the underlying mantle. When the plates rub together at these boundaries, it causes huge stress that results in earthquakes, faults, and tsunamis.
Anatomy of a Megathrust Earthquake Rupture - The 2010 M8.8 Chile Quake
Presented for an IRIS (Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology) webinar on 9 April 2014.
Webinar can be viewed here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MNcl5AZlX3k
Abstract: In February 2010, a magnitude 8.8 megathrust earthquake struck the Maule region of Central Chile - the sixth largest earthquake ever recorded. It is fast becoming one of the best-studied megathrust ruptures, allowing us a unique insight into the inner workings of subduction zone earthquakes. In the earthquake’s immediate aftermath, an international group of research institutions deployed geophysical instruments in the rupture area. A network of ~160 seismic stations on the forearc recorded over 50,000 aftershocks in the first 10 months following the earthquake.
I have used observations of P- and S-waves from aftershocks to derive a high-resolution seismic travel-time tomography of the rupture zone. Observations from ocean-bottom seismometers further improve image sharpness in the offshore portion of the seismogenic zone, where most slip occurred during the earthquake. The tomographic images reveal the distribution of P-wave velocity and Poisson’s Ratio within the earthquake rupture zone. Based on accurate aftershock locations and moment tensors, I have defined a new 3-D plate interface geometry to infer the physical structure and composition along the plate interface. I compare these velocities with the mainly geodetically observed behaviour of the fault throughout a cycle of seismic behaviour (preseismic locking, coseismic slip, postseismic deformation). This comparison allows us to understand some of the physical properties that may govern seismogenesis along the megathrust. I will reveal how both the long-lived geological structure of the forearc and the composition of the subducting oceanic plate may influence the rupture behaviour of large megathrust earthquakes. An understanding of seismic velocities along the megathrust may therefore be used to constrain the seismogenic potential of subduction zones worldwide.
Folding
Monoclines, anticlines, and synclines are three types of folds that can form in rock layers. Monoclines involve bending strata upward, while anticlines fold strata upward with limbs dipping away from the hinge. Synclines fold strata downward with limbs dipping inward. Folds have limbs, a hinge, a fold axis, and sometimes an axial plane. Folds can be symmetrical if limbs dip the same amount, or asymmetrical if they dip different amounts. Very tight folding can result in isoclinal or overturned folds.
Different Types of Fault Movements
Faults are cracks on the Earth's crust, of which there are three types- normal fault, reverse fault, strike slip fault.
Mountain building ppt nc 13
1) Mountain building, or rock deformation, occurs through compressional, tensional, and shear stresses that cause folding and faulting of the Earth's crust. 2) There are three main types of folds - anticlines, synclines, and monoclines - and three main types of faults - normal, reverse, and strike-slip. 3) There are four main types of mountains - folded mountains, fault-block mountains, volcanic mountains, and dome mountains.
Symbiosis
Symbiosis is defined as two organisms living together, either temporarily or for a longer period of time, where at least one benefits from the relationship. There are three main types of symbiotic relationships: mutualism, where both organisms benefit; commensalism, where one benefits while the other is unaffected; and parasitism, where one benefits while the other is harmed. Examples of these relationships include cleaner fish removing parasites from moray eels (mutualism), cattle egrets eating insects stirred up by cattle (commensalism), and Taenia worms infecting and potentially blinding humans (parasitism).
Fault(bibek)final
The document discusses faults in terms of geology. It begins by defining a fault as a fracture between rock blocks that have moved relative to each other parallel to the fracture plane. It then discusses different types of faults including normal faults, strike-slip faults, and oblique slip faults. It provides examples of key features associated with different fault types, such as horsts and grabens associated with normal faults, and flower structures associated with strike-slip faults. The document also discusses methods for recognizing faults based on geological, fault plane, and physiographic evidence observed in the field.
Phes Ch11
1. The document discusses different types of mountain formation including folded mountains formed by plate collisions at convergent boundaries, fault-block mountains formed by uplift along normal faults, and domed mountains formed by uplifting of basement rock.
2. Mountain building occurs through processes like folding, faulting, and metamorphism of rock layers as tectonic plates converge. Different mountain types result from ocean-ocean, ocean-continental, and continental-continental plate collisions.
3. After mountain building, thickened crust undergoes isostatic adjustment through regional uplift to reach a new equilibrium with the mantle.
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Dinosaurfootprints
The document provides information on measuring dinosaur footprints and trackways to determine characteristics of dinosaurs such as speed and size. It discusses measuring footprint length and stride length to calculate hip height, total length, and whether the dinosaur was walking, trotting, or running. Examples are given for various dinosaurs such as Velociraptor, Ultrasaurus, and Gallimimus. Formulas are presented for calculating hip height, relative stride length, dimensionless speed, and actual speed based on footprint and stride length measurements.
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This document discusses dinosaurs, including their diversity and characteristics. It notes that there were over 500 dinosaur genera and around 1,000 species. Herbivorous dinosaurs tended to have large bodies, neck and tail variations suited for different diets, and gastroliths or stomach stones. Carnivorous dinosaurs were often bipedal, had forward-facing eyes and sharp teeth and claws for hunting, and may have hunted in packs. Specific dinosaurs discussed include Spinosaurus, Stegosaurus, and Argentinosaurus, which was one of the largest at over 30 meters long.
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This document discusses the construction and analysis of hydrographs. Hydrographs show changes in river discharge over time, especially during storm events. They are constructed by plotting river discharge levels against time to analyze flooding patterns. Key aspects of hydrographs include the rising limb as flood waters increase, the peak flow, recession limb as waters recede, and basin lag time between peak rainfall and peak river flow. Analyzing hydrographs can help predict flooding and inform flood prevention. Many factors influence hydrograph shape, such as area, slope, soil, land use, and precipitation patterns.
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The document provides information about the hydrological cycle including key definitions and processes. It explains that precipitation is an input into the cycle, while evaporation and transpiration are outputs. It also describes several transfer processes by which water moves through the cycle, such as surface runoff, infiltration, percolation, groundwater flow, and river discharge.
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This document lists several types of extinct marine organisms: bivalves, brachiopods, graptolites, and ammonites. Bivalves and brachiopods are shelled organisms, while graptolites and ammonites are shelled cephalopods that were important members of Paleozoic and Mesozoic seas.
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This document describes various landforms created by glacial erosion and deposition. It defines cirques, corries, and cwms as hollows on mountainsides deepened and widened by corrie glaciers. Arêtes are knife-edged ridges between corries, while pyramidal peaks form when multiple corries erode a central horn-shaped area. Glacial troughs or U-shaped valleys have hanging valleys, truncated spurs, and misfit streams. Features of glacial deposition include till, moraines, drumlins, eskers, kames, kettles, and outwash plains.
Glacial landforms
Peter Knight photographed various glaciers around the world including niche glaciers in Wyoming that are sensitive to climate change, the ice cap on Cotopaxi volcano in Ecuador which extends further on the windward side due to higher snowfall, and valley, mountain, and ice sheet glaciers in locations such as Alaska, Greenland, and New Zealand. The photos show glacial landforms and features including moraines, crevasses, ice caves, supraglacial streams, ice cliffs, striations, and erratics.
Glacial features
The document discusses different types of glacial ice formations including glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets, and niche ice. It provides examples of each type through photographs of glaciers in locations like Wyoming, Ecuador, Alaska, and New Zealand. The text also examines glacial landforms created by erosion and deposition as glaciers advance and retreat, such as moraines, eskers, drumlins, and outwash plains.
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This document provides information on different types of sedimentary rocks formed through organic, chemical, and evaporative processes. Organic rocks like chalk are composed of microscopic shells and form limestones. Chemical rocks like oolitic limestone form through precipitation and contain spherical grains. Evaporite rocks like halite form through evaporation in arid climates and include common minerals like gypsum and rock salt. Each rock type is described in terms of its composition, texture, and environmental conditions of formation.
Sedimentary structures smallas
Sedimentary structures provide important information about depositional environments and allow the orientation of sedimentary beds to be determined. Key structures discussed include beds and bedding planes, laminations, graded bedding indicating changes in grain size over time, cross-bedding showing current direction, sole structures like flute casts formed by erosion on sediment surfaces, and trace fossils providing evidence of organism behavior and helping determine the correct vertical orientation of strata. Together, an understanding of these sedimentary structures is essential for interpreting the depositional history preserved in sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary structures smallas
Sedimentary structures provide important information about the depositional environment and post-depositional changes to sedimentary rocks. Key structures discussed include beds and bedding planes, laminations, graded bedding indicating changes in grain size over time, cross-bedding reflecting currents, load casts and flame structures from density differences, sole structures on bed bases indicating erosion, and trace fossils providing evidence of organism behavior and helping determine correct bed orientations. Together, an understanding of these sedimentary structures allows reconstruction of the depositional environment and testing of the law of superposition.
Metamorphismpptpntn.ppt2
Metamorphism is the change in form of pre-existing rocks due to heat, pressure, or both. Contact metamorphism involves changes from heat alone near igneous intrusions, forming rocks like marble, quartzite, and hornfels. Regional metamorphism over large areas is caused by heat and pressure, producing foliated rocks like slate, schist, and gneiss from sediments. Dynamic metamorphism involves crushing along fault planes to form breccias and mylonites. Grade of metamorphism depends on conditions and mineral growth.
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Lava cools and solidifies in different ways depending on factors like thickness, rate of cooling, and whether it erupts on land or underwater. This results in a variety of igneous rock textures like pillow lava formed under water, glassy texture from instant cooling, rope-like pahoehoe or jagged aa textures on land, and vesicles or mineral deposits within the rock. Thick lava flows exhibit columnar jointing as they slowly cool from the outside in, forming hexagonal or pentagonal columns.
Igneousrockssmall
Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. There are two main types - extrusive rocks which cool at the surface and intrusive rocks which cool underground. Crystal size depends on the cooling rate, with rapid surface cooling producing microscopic crystals and slow underground cooling producing larger crystals. Texture and mineral composition further classify igneous rocks into categories like rhyolite, granite, gabbro and basalt. Pyroclastic rocks form from explosive eruptions and include tuffs, agglomerates and volcanic bombs.
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Graphic logs are a method used by geologists to record sedimentary rock layers and structures to scale using symbols. The vertical scale shows bed thickness proportionally, while the horizontal scale maps particle sizes. A variety of symbols indicate features like graded bedding, cross-bedding, ripples, and erosion surfaces. Example graphic logs depict typical sequences in glacial, river, desert, and delta depositional environments. Questions on exams may involve interpreting sedimentary histories from graphic logs.
Graphiclogs
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This document provides information on clastic/detrital sedimentary rocks, including their characteristics, classification, particle sizes, rock groups, terminology, and examples. It describes the key properties of sedimentary rocks formed from eroded fragments such as conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, shale, and discusses the environments in which they form.
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This document discusses classifying igneous rocks based on their texture, grain size, color, density, and chemical composition. Igneous rocks can be classified as volcanic, hypabyssal, or plutonic based on grain size, and further classified as ultramafic, mafic, intermediate, or acid based on their chemistry and mineral content, with darker, denser rocks generally being richer in ferromagnesian minerals and lighter rocks richer in quartz and feldspar.
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There are no fixed maturity dates in such securities, and asset’s value is determined by company’s performance. There are two major types of equity securities: common stock and preferred stock.
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Faults types
- 1. Faults Brittle Deformation
- 2. Fault types
- 3. Normal fault
- 4. Rift valley
- 5. East African Rift valley
- 8. Small road side fault Japan
- 10. Thrust fault
- 11. Thrust fault. Precambrian thrust from left over Cretaceous shales
- 13. Strike slip left
- 14. Strike slip right Size: 640 × 289 Type: 20KB GIF
- 15. California strike slip left lateral
- 16. Right lateral strike slip
- 19. Scotland Faults
- 20. Gt Glen Fault
- 22. Transform faults