This document provides an overview of hydrogen powered vehicles, including their types and benefits as well as challenges. It discusses how hydrogen can be used as an alternative fuel source for vehicles, produced through various methods like methane steam reforming and from coal. The key challenges of hydrogen storage are also outlined, such as liquid hydrogen, metal hydrides, compressed hydrogen gas. The working of hydrogen fuel cells is explained, noting they generate electricity through an electrochemical process without combustion. Advantages are zero emissions and high efficiency, while disadvantages include high production and storage costs.
Nepal is currently reeling under acute fuel crisis due to undeclared economic blockade by India. Transportation and cooking are two main areas that have been severely affected due to the fuel shortages. Alternative sources of cooking fuels have become a crucial topic of research and investigation on an international scale and Nepal may require such unconventional solutions to cope with the crisis that does not seem to be winding down anytime soon. The utilization of Hydrogen as an energy carrier with regards to domestic cooking has been explored and studied by countless experts over the years and is still a relatively novel concept that requires further exploration.
Nepal is currently reeling under acute fuel crisis due to undeclared economic blockade by India. Transportation and cooking are two main areas that have been severely affected due to the fuel shortages. Alternative sources of cooking fuels have become a crucial topic of research and investigation on an international scale and Nepal may require such unconventional solutions to cope with the crisis that does not seem to be winding down anytime soon. The utilization of Hydrogen as an energy carrier with regards to domestic cooking has been explored and studied by countless experts over the years and is still a relatively novel concept that requires further exploration.
Green hydrogen Basics - Overview_Jan 2022Gurudatt Rao
Ā
This brief presentation gives an overview of different aspects of 'Green Hydrogen' along with challenges linked to its adoption considering Climate Change and Energy Diversification.
Presentation: DOE Stetsoon Hydrogen Storage technologieschrisrobschu
Ā
Hydrogen Storage Technologies ā
A Tutorial
with Perspectives from the US National Program
Ned T. Stetson
U. S. Department of Energy
1000 Independence Ave., SW
Washington, DC 20585
Materials Challenges in Alternative and Renewable Energy
Cocoa Beach, FL
February 22, 2010
ā¢ Why do we need better hydrogen storage?
ā¢ Physical storage technologies
ā Liquid
ā Compressed
ā Cryo-compressed
ā¢ Materials-based storage technologies
ā Hydrogen sorbents
ā Metal hydrides
ā Complex hydrides
ā Chemical hydrogen storage
Doe stetson hydrogen_storage_technologies_tutorial
Topics Covered:
Why we need Alternative Fuel?
Why Hydrogen is the best Alternative Fuel?
Production, Storage and Transportation of Hydrogen Fuel
Current Status of Hydrogen Fuel
Drawbacks of Using Hydrogen as a Fuel
IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of mechanical and civil engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in mechanical and civil engineering. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Green hydrogen Basics - Overview_Jan 2022Gurudatt Rao
Ā
This brief presentation gives an overview of different aspects of 'Green Hydrogen' along with challenges linked to its adoption considering Climate Change and Energy Diversification.
Presentation: DOE Stetsoon Hydrogen Storage technologieschrisrobschu
Ā
Hydrogen Storage Technologies ā
A Tutorial
with Perspectives from the US National Program
Ned T. Stetson
U. S. Department of Energy
1000 Independence Ave., SW
Washington, DC 20585
Materials Challenges in Alternative and Renewable Energy
Cocoa Beach, FL
February 22, 2010
ā¢ Why do we need better hydrogen storage?
ā¢ Physical storage technologies
ā Liquid
ā Compressed
ā Cryo-compressed
ā¢ Materials-based storage technologies
ā Hydrogen sorbents
ā Metal hydrides
ā Complex hydrides
ā Chemical hydrogen storage
Doe stetson hydrogen_storage_technologies_tutorial
Topics Covered:
Why we need Alternative Fuel?
Why Hydrogen is the best Alternative Fuel?
Production, Storage and Transportation of Hydrogen Fuel
Current Status of Hydrogen Fuel
Drawbacks of Using Hydrogen as a Fuel
IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of mechanical and civil engineering and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in mechanical and civil engineering. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Capacity Spectrum Method for RC Building with Cracked and Uncracked SectionIOSR Journals
Ā
one of the most widespread procedures for the assessment of building behavior, due to earthquake, is the Capacity Spectrum Method (CSM). In the scope of this procedure, capacity of the structure compares with the demands of earthquake ground motion on the structure. The capacity of the structure is represented by a nonlinear force-displacement curve, referred to as a pushover curve. The base shear forces and roof displacements are converted to equivalent spectral accelerations and spectral displacements, respectively, by means of coefficients that represent effective modal masses and modal participation factors. These spectral values define the capacity spectrum. The demands of the earthquake ground motion are represented by response spectra. A graphical construction that includes both capacity and demand spectra, results in an intersection of the two curves that estimates the performance of the structure to the earthquake. In this study, for determination of the performance levels, G+10 R.C.C. Building with cracked and uncracked section were taken. The structural Capacity of cracked and uncracked section compared with performance point value, which shows the structural capacity of building having cracked section is lesser than the uncracked section. Different modeling issues were analyzed to study the effect on Capacity of the structure with cracked and uncracked section for different position of Shear wall.
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF HYDROGEN FUELED INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINEijsrd.com
Ā
In the history of internal combustion engine development, hydrogen has been considered at several phases as a substitute of hydrocarbon-based fuels. Starting from the 70ĆĀ¢Ć¢āĀ¬Ć¢āĀ¢s, there have been several attempts to convert engines for hydrogen operation. Together with the development in gas injector technology it has become possible to control precisely the injection of hydrogen for safe operation. Here we are using stainless steel plate as electrode in the electrolytic cell, the electrolyte being water and NACL salt. The electrolytic cell we used is a 12V battery case made of plastic. The cross sectional layers are cut such that the stainless steel plate fix in the battery case. The plates are separated by very small distance and the plates are given parallel holes for electron flow to be uniform. The power source to the kit is provided by a 12V and 9Ams battery. We used a transparent tube to supply the hydrogen produced in the kit to the air hose tube of our motor cycle. In order to keep the battery charged we used two 6 Amp diode to power the battery while running. There is a separate switch to power the kit and to protect the battery from getting drained. The stainless steel plates are of 50cm length, 25cm height, 2 millimeter thickness. The battery case can hold up to 5 liters of electrolyte. The use of hydrogen with petrol to power the vehicle has resulted in increase in vehicle mileage, accelerating speed with most important task of reduction in exhaust emission.
Introduction:
Hydrogen technologies have come to light as a possible answer to the problems associated with climate change and the switch to clean energy in the pursuit of a sustainable future. The most common element in the universe, hydrogen, has the power to transform a number of sectors and act as a clean energy source. The main features of hydrogen technologies, their uses, and their part in creating a more sustainable world are all examined in this article.
Understanding Hydrogen:
One can obtain hydrogen, a versatile element, by a variety of techniques, including electrolysis, steam methane reforming, and biomass gasification. The ability of hydrogen to produce energy when it interacts with oxygen, producing heat and water as byproducts, is what makes it so alluring. Numerous applications involving hydrogen are centered around this process, which is called fuel cell technology.
It is a brief PPT on the hydrogen fuel cell and it's benefits.the fuel cell has proven to be the better technology ever seen.
It is the field that is yet to be discovered more
So there is a high chance of growth in this technology
TOP 10 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION COST OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
Hydrogen production cost analysis is crucial for understanding the economic viability of hydrogen as an energy source. But do you know what are those Cost Optimization techniques, how to identify, which phase to implement?
Green hydrogen production refers to the process of producing hydrogen gas using renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, or hydropower. Hydrogen is a versatile and clean energy carrier that can be used in various sectors, including transportation, industry, and power generation. The "green" in green hydrogen signifies its environmentally friendly nature, as it is produced without emitting carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases.
Application of Hydrogen as Fuel Supplement in Internal Combustion Engines-A B...IJSRD
Ā
Faced with the ever increasing cost of conventional fossil fuels and the severe environmental pollution, researchers worldwide are working to cost effectively improve internal combustion engines fuel economy and emission characteristics. Recently, use of hydrogen or hydrogen-rich gas as fuel supplement for SI and CI engines is considered to be one of the potential solutions to these problems. Hydrogen has many excellent combustion properties that can be used for improving hydrocarbon combustion and emissions performance of both SI and CI engines. This article presents a brief review on the recent progress in the application of hydrogen as a fuel additive to improve the efficiencies and emissions of modern IC engines.
WINNING IMPERATIVES: UNLEASHING THE POWER OF HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGIES FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
A flexible and clean energy source with many uses is hydrogen. The following list covers some of the most popular hydrogen technologies, along with a comparison of their benefits and drawbacks:
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are zero emission and run on compressed hydrogen fed into a fuel cell "stack" that produces electricity to power the vehicle. A fuel cell can be used in combination with an electric motor to drive a vehicle ā quietly, powerfully and cleanly.
HYDROGEN AS A SOLUTION TO REPLACE FOSSIL FUEL AND AVOID THE EMISSION OF GREEN...Faga1939
Ā
This article aims to present how hydrogen can be used as one of the energy sources of the future and collaborate in the elimination or reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, contributing effectively to the fight against global climate change, which tends to be catastrophic. The International Energy Agency (IEA) assured in a report dated 2019 that hydrogen is an energy of the future. Hydrogen appears to be a real alternative because it does not emit CO2 when associated with a fuel cell. It is important to note that hydrogen is also a renewable energy source that was discovered several centuries ago. There is gray hydrogen, produced from fossil fuels. When this production comes from natural gas and there is carbon capture and storage, we have blue hydrogen. Green hydrogen is that made from the electrolysis of water. However, the initial energy to carry out this process needs to come from renewable sources (hydroelectricity, solar energy, wind energy and biomass) so that the hydrogen obtained qualifies as green hydrogen. Thus, its production takes place without carbon emissions. Although the best-known use of hydrogen is probably in motor vehicles, there are many other possible uses such as generating power for buildings, it can also provide heat, it can be used in aircraft, as an emergency generator system and on a hydrogen-powered cruise ship. It is also possible for hydrogen to power service vehicles such as forklifts and trucks, as well as buses and trains.
Nanostructured composite materials for CO2 activationPawan Kumar
Ā
The increasing energy crisis and the worsening global climate caused by the excessive
utilization of the fossil fuel have boosted tremendous research about CO2 capture, storage and
utilization. Among these approaches, utilization of carbon dioxide to produce valuable chemicals
is preferred than dumping it. Particularly, utilization of CO2 as feedstock for the photocatalytic
conversion into valuable products is a viable approach for harvesting solar radiation as an energy
source and to mitigate increasing CO2 concentration. Artificial photosynthesis by using
nanostructured materials as photocatalyst has immense potential to convert carbon dioxide into
renewable fuels such as methanol/CO etc. The present chapter focuses on the synthesis, characterization and application of various nanostructured materials for CO2 activation including
photoreduction of CO2 to valuable products.
PRESENTATION ON PLANT DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING OF HYDROGENPriyam Jyoti Borah
Ā
Steam reforming or steam methane reforming is a method for producing syngas (hydrogen and carbon monoxide) by reaction of hydrocarbons with water. Commonly natural gas is the feedstock. The main purpose of this technology is hydrogen production.The reaction is conducted in a reformer vessel where a high pressure mixture of steam and methane are put into contact with a nickel catalyst. Catalysts with high surface-area-to-volume ratio are preferred because of diffusion limitations due to high operating temperature. Examples of catalyst shapes used are spoked wheels, gear wheels, and rings with holes. Additionally, these shapes have a low pressure drop which is advantageous for this application.
GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using Deplo...James Anderson
Ā
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
Welocme to ViralQR, your best QR code generator.ViralQR
Ā
Welcome to ViralQR, your best QR code generator available on the market!
At ViralQR, we design static and dynamic QR codes. Our mission is to make business operations easier and customer engagement more powerful through the use of QR technology. Be it a small-scale business or a huge enterprise, our easy-to-use platform provides multiple choices that can be tailored according to your company's branding and marketing strategies.
Our Vision
We are here to make the process of creating QR codes easy and smooth, thus enhancing customer interaction and making business more fluid. We very strongly believe in the ability of QR codes to change the world for businesses in their interaction with customers and are set on making that technology accessible and usable far and wide.
Our Achievements
Ever since its inception, we have successfully served many clients by offering QR codes in their marketing, service delivery, and collection of feedback across various industries. Our platform has been recognized for its ease of use and amazing features, which helped a business to make QR codes.
Our Services
At ViralQR, here is a comprehensive suite of services that caters to your very needs:
Static QR Codes: Create free static QR codes. These QR codes are able to store significant information such as URLs, vCards, plain text, emails and SMS, Wi-Fi credentials, and Bitcoin addresses.
Dynamic QR codes: These also have all the advanced features but are subscription-based. They can directly link to PDF files, images, micro-landing pages, social accounts, review forms, business pages, and applications. In addition, they can be branded with CTAs, frames, patterns, colors, and logos to enhance your branding.
Pricing and Packages
Additionally, there is a 14-day free offer to ViralQR, which is an exceptional opportunity for new users to take a feel of this platform. One can easily subscribe from there and experience the full dynamic of using QR codes. The subscription plans are not only meant for business; they are priced very flexibly so that literally every business could afford to benefit from our service.
Why choose us?
ViralQR will provide services for marketing, advertising, catering, retail, and the like. The QR codes can be posted on fliers, packaging, merchandise, and banners, as well as to substitute for cash and cards in a restaurant or coffee shop. With QR codes integrated into your business, improve customer engagement and streamline operations.
Comprehensive Analytics
Subscribers of ViralQR receive detailed analytics and tracking tools in light of having a view of the core values of QR code performance. Our analytics dashboard shows aggregate views and unique views, as well as detailed information about each impression, including time, device, browser, and estimated location by city and country.
So, thank you for choosing ViralQR; we have an offer of nothing but the best in terms of QR code services to meet business diversity!
A tale of scale & speed: How the US Navy is enabling software delivery from l...sonjaschweigert1
Ā
Rapid and secure feature delivery is a goal across every application team and every branch of the DoD. The Navyās DevSecOps platform, Party Barge, has achieved:
- Reduction in onboarding time from 5 weeks to 1 day
- Improved developer experience and productivity through actionable findings and reduction of false positives
- Maintenance of superior security standards and inherent policy enforcement with Authorization to Operate (ATO)
Development teams can ship efficiently and ensure applications are cyber ready for Navy Authorizing Officials (AOs). In this webinar, Sigma Defense and Anchore will give attendees a look behind the scenes and demo secure pipeline automation and security artifacts that speed up application ATO and time to production.
We will cover:
- How to remove silos in DevSecOps
- How to build efficient development pipeline roles and component templates
- How to deliver security artifacts that matter for ATOās (SBOMs, vulnerability reports, and policy evidence)
- How to streamline operations with automated policy checks on container images
Elevating Tactical DDD Patterns Through Object CalisthenicsDorra BARTAGUIZ
Ā
After immersing yourself in the blue book and its red counterpart, attending DDD-focused conferences, and applying tactical patterns, you're left with a crucial question: How do I ensure my design is effective? Tactical patterns within Domain-Driven Design (DDD) serve as guiding principles for creating clear and manageable domain models. However, achieving success with these patterns requires additional guidance. Interestingly, we've observed that a set of constraints initially designed for training purposes remarkably aligns with effective pattern implementation, offering a more āmechanicalā approach. Let's explore together how Object Calisthenics can elevate the design of your tactical DDD patterns, offering concrete help for those venturing into DDD for the first time!
Observability Concepts EVERY Developer Should Know -- DeveloperWeek Europe.pdfPaige Cruz
Ā
Monitoring and observability arenāt traditionally found in software curriculums and many of us cobble this knowledge together from whatever vendor or ecosystem we were first introduced to and whatever is a part of your current companyās observability stack.
While the dev and ops silo continues to crumbleā¦.many organizations still relegate monitoring & observability as the purview of ops, infra and SRE teams. This is a mistake - achieving a highly observable system requires collaboration up and down the stack.
I, a former op, would like to extend an invitation to all application developers to join the observability party will share these foundational concepts to build on:
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 3DianaGray10
Ā
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 3. In this session, we will cover desktop automation along with UI automation.
Topics covered:
UI automation Introduction,
UI automation Sample
Desktop automation flow
Pradeep Chinnala, Senior Consultant Automation Developer @WonderBotz and UiPath MVP
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey 2024 by 91mobiles.pdf91mobiles
Ā
91mobiles recently conducted a Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey in which we asked over 3,000 respondents about the TV they own, aspects they look at on a new TV, and their TV buying preferences.
State of ICS and IoT Cyber Threat Landscape Report 2024 previewPrayukth K V
Ā
The IoT and OT threat landscape report has been prepared by the Threat Research Team at Sectrio using data from Sectrio, cyber threat intelligence farming facilities spread across over 85 cities around the world. In addition, Sectrio also runs AI-based advanced threat and payload engagement facilities that serve as sinks to attract and engage sophisticated threat actors, and newer malware including new variants and latent threats that are at an earlier stage of development.
The latest edition of the OT/ICS and IoT security Threat Landscape Report 2024 also covers:
State of global ICS asset and network exposure
Sectoral targets and attacks as well as the cost of ransom
Global APT activity, AI usage, actor and tactic profiles, and implications
Rise in volumes of AI-powered cyberattacks
Major cyber events in 2024
Malware and malicious payload trends
Cyberattack types and targets
Vulnerability exploit attempts on CVEs
Attacks on counties ā USA
Expansion of bot farms ā how, where, and why
In-depth analysis of the cyber threat landscape across North America, South America, Europe, APAC, and the Middle East
Why are attacks on smart factories rising?
Cyber risk predictions
Axis of attacks ā Europe
Systemic attacks in the Middle East
Download the full report from here:
https://sectrio.com/resources/ot-threat-landscape-reports/sectrio-releases-ot-ics-and-iot-security-threat-landscape-report-2024/
SAP Sapphire 2024 - ASUG301 building better apps with SAP Fiori.pdfPeter Spielvogel
Ā
Building better applications for business users with SAP Fiori.
ā¢ What is SAP Fiori and why it matters to you
ā¢ How a better user experience drives measurable business benefits
ā¢ How to get started with SAP Fiori today
ā¢ How SAP Fiori elements accelerates application development
ā¢ How SAP Build Code includes SAP Fiori tools and other generative artificial intelligence capabilities
ā¢ How SAP Fiori paves the way for using AI in SAP apps
SAP Sapphire 2024 - ASUG301 building better apps with SAP Fiori.pdf
Ā
F012234450
1. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE)
e-ISSN: 2278-1684,p-ISSN: 2320-334X, Volume 12, Issue 2 Ver. III (Mar - Apr. 2015), PP 44-50
www.iosrjournals.org
DOI: 10.9790/1684-12234450 www.iosrjournals.org 44 | Page
Hydrogen Powered Vehicles- An Overview
Ankit Maroli, Ashish Kumar Khandual, Ashutosh Mahajani, Lohit Mahadevan
(Mechanical, Bharati Vidyapeeth College of Engineering/Mumbai University, India)
Abstract: Every day we come across headlines stating the increase in the usage of petroleum, diesel, or the
drastic changes in the weather due to Global warming. Because of this very reason mankind has started looking
for alternative fuels and energy sources. Strenuous efforts have been made over the past few decades finding if
the simplest element i.e. Hydrogen can actually deliver, serve the purpose of an alternative fuel and reduce our
reliance on oil. Is Hydrogen capable of replacing conventional fuels like gasoline/diesel?
Our paper highlights the important aspects of hydrogen powered vehicles, their types, and imprints a notion of
being in a pollution free state with negligible tailpipe emissions as well as shows the hindering pitfall of its
usage.
Keywords: Automobiles, Emissions, Hydrogen, Hydrogen Powered Vehicles, Weather Changes.
I. Introduction
Engine displacement, power output, fuel economy etc. have always been the most common factors when
it comes to gauging a car for its āon-roadā capabilities. But in the last few decades, āemissionsā, a previously
overlooked factor has become vital to building and buying āroad-optimumā civilian automobiles. Car
manufacturers across the world face a serious deadline to reduce the tailpipe emissions of their automobiles.
This has led to an array of alternative fuels being discovered and researched upon. The standout amongst
these is Hydrogen. The vehicles derive their energy from the simplest element found on earth i.e. Hydrogen. The
truly fascinating feature flaunted by these fuel cells is āZERO HARMFUL EMISSIONSā. Moreover the only
emissions are water vapor and heat.
II. Hydrogen as an Alternative Source of Energy
Hydrogen is the first element on the periodic table, making it the lightest element. Since hydrogen gas
is so light, it rises in the atmosphere and is therefore rarely found in its pure form, H2. In a flame of pure
hydrogen gas, burning in air, the hydrogen (H2) reacts with oxygen (O2) to form water (H2O) and releases
energy. The energy released enables hydrogen to act as a fuel. Since there is very little free hydrogen gas,
hydrogen is in practice only as an energy carrier, like electricity, not an energy resource. Thus, hydrogen gas
must be produced separately. Therefore, we need to have an insight on its properties and production and storage
in order to show its viability.
III. Characteristics of Hydrogen
There are several important characteristics of hydrogen that greatly influence the technological
development of hydrogen ICE and FCVs. [1]
Wide Range of Flammability: Compared to nearly all other fuels, hydrogen has a wide
flammability range (4-74% versus 1.4-7.6% volume in air for gasoline). This first leads to obvious concerns
over the safe handling of hydrogen. But, it also implies that a wide range of fuel-air mixtures, including a lean
mix of fuel to air, or, in other words, a fuel-air mix in which the amount of fuel is less than the stoichiometric, or
chemically ideal, amount. Running an engine on a lean mix generally allows for greater fuel economy due to a
more complete combustion of the fuel. In addition, it also allows for a lower combustion temperature, lowering
emissions of criteria pollutants such as nitrous oxides (NOX).
Low Ignition Energy: The amount of energy needed to ignite hydrogen is on the order of a magnitude
lower than that needed to ignite gasoline (0.02 MJ for hydrogen versus 0.2 MJ for gasoline). On the upside, this
ensures ignition of lean mixtures and allows for prompt ignition. On the downside, it implies that there is the
danger of hot gases or hot spots on the cylinder igniting the fuel, leading to issues with premature ignition and
flashback (i.e., ignition after the vehicle is turned off).
Small Quenching Distance: Hydrogen has a small quenching distance (0.6mm for hydrogen versus
2.0mm for gasoline), which refers to the distance from the internal cylinder wall where the combustion flame
extinguishes. This implies that it is more difficult to quench a hydrogen flame than the flame of most other fuels,
which can increase backfire (i.e., ignition of the engineās exhaust).
High Flame Speed: Hydrogen burns with a high flame speed, allowing for hydrogen engines to more
closely approach the thermodynamically ideal engine cycle (most efficient fuel power ratio) when the
2. Hydrogen Powered Vehicles- An Overview
DOI: 10.9790/1684-12234450 www.iosrjournals.org 45 | Page
stoichiometric fuel mix is used. However, when the engine is running lean to improve fuel economy, flame
speed slows significantly.
High Diffusivity: Hydrogen disperses quickly into air, allowing for a more uniform fuel air mixture,
and a decreased likelihood of major safety issues from hydrogen leaks.
Low Density: The most important implication of hydrogenās low density is that without significant
compression or conversion of hydrogen to a liquid, a very large volume may be necessary to store enough
hydrogen to provide an adequate driving range. Low density also implies that the fuel-air mixture has low
energy density, which tends to reduce the power output of the engine. Thus when a hydrogen engine is run lean,
issues with inadequate power may arise.
IV. Hydrogen Production
Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of feedstock. These include fossil resources, such as natural gas and
coal, as well as renewable resources, such as biomass and water with input from renewable energy sources (e.g.
sunlight, wind, wave or hydro-power). A variety of process technologies can be used, including chemical,
biological, electrolytic, photolytic and thermo-chemical. Each technology is in a different stage of development,
and each offers unique opportunities, benefits and challenges. Two of the methods of producing Hydrogen are
explained below.
4.1 Methane Steam Reformer Plant
Steam reforming is a method for production of hydrogen, carbon monoxide or other useful products
from hydrocarbon fuels such as natural gas. This is achieved in a processing device called as a reformer which
reacts steam at high temperatures with fossil fuel. The steam methane reformer is widely used in industry to make
hydrogen.
Steam reforming of natural gas - sometimes referred to as steam methane reforming (SMR) ā is the most
common method of producing commercial bulk hydrogen. Hydrogen is used in the industrial synthesis of
ammonia and other chemicals. At high temperatures (700 ā 1100 Ā°C) and in presence of a metal-based catalyst
(nickel), steam reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
Synthetic gas is a fuel gas mixture consisting primarily of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and very often
some carbon dioxide:
The first equation being highly endothermic, consumes tremendous amount of energy. Also carbon
monoxide is the raw material for the second reaction, this has become a cause of concern around the globe as it is
a greenhouse gas and the cost of reformer plant does not suffice for the amount of hydrogen produced.
Researchers at NREL are developing advanced processes to produce hydrogen economically from
sustainable resources. Researchers are now focusing on the following methods of extracting hydrogen:
1. Biological water splitting
2. Fermentation
3. Conversion of biomass and wastes
4. Photo electrochemical water splitting
5. Solar Thermal water splitting
6. Renewable electrolysis
7. Hydrogen dispenser hose reliability
8. Hydrogen production and delivery pathway analysis.
4.2 Production from coal
Hydrogen can be produced from coal through a variety of gasification processes (e.g. fixed bed,
fluidized bed or entrained flow) [2]. In practice, high-temperature entrained flow processes are favored to
maximize carbon conversion to gas, thus avoiding the formation of significant amounts of char, tars and
phenols. A typical reaction for the process I s given in the equation below, in which carbon is converted to
carbon monoxide and hydrogen:
(1) C(s) + H2O + heat ā CO + H2
Since this reaction is endothermic, additional heat is required, as with methane reforming. The CO is
further converted to CO2 and H2 through the water-gas shift reaction. Hydrogen production from coal is
commercially mature, but it is more complex than the production of hydrogen from natural gas. The cost of the
resulting hydrogen is also higher. But since coal is plentiful in many parts of the world and will probably be
3. Hydrogen Powered Vehicles- An Overview
DOI: 10.9790/1684-12234450 www.iosrjournals.org 46 | Page
used as an energy source regardless, it is worthwhile to explore the development of clean technologies for its
use.
V. Hydrogen Storage
When it comes to using hydrogen as a source of power to be used in vehicles, it is the storage of
hydrogen that poses one of the bigger challenges. As discussed before, hydrogen, having a lower weight-by-
volume ratio, requires a space considerably more than that required to store the same amount of gasoline under
similar conditions. Using a larger tank for the hydrogen is neither practical nor efficient as far as the design of
the car is concerned, which has led to the development of better alternatives for the storage of hydrogen.
5.1 Liquid hydrogen
Liquefied hydrogen does away with the problem of low density prevalent in gaseous hydrogen. Liquid
hydrogen vehicular storage systems have some of the highest mass fractions and lowest system volumes. This
makes it a strong contender to be used in vehicles. As the hydrogen is in liquid state, it becomes increasingly
easy to store it and to fill the vehicle tanks.
Though the liquefaction process of hydrogen is a considerably costly one, since, it is said to take up
high energies for liquefaction to the order of almost 30% of the hydrogen heating value. Also when it comes to
hydrogen, the factor of dormancy is one of the frequently faced problems. Liquid hydrogen too has this very
drawback. When liquid hydrogen is stored unused for a certain period of time, high level of boil-off losses occur
thus the overall efficiency of the storage system is highly reduced.
But all this said, it can be argued that liquid hydrogen is still the best alternative for vehicular
applications since the various advantages of liquid hydrogen like its safety characteristics, higher density and its
current success record overshadows its few disadvantages like dormancy and production costs.
5.2 Metal hydrides
Metal hydrides are arguably the best way to store hydrogen for portable use. These work on the
principle of dissociation of gaseous hydrogen at a certain temperature. Accordingly the metal hydrides are
widely divided into two types: low dissociation temperature hydrides and high dissociation temperature
hydrides.
Both of these systems have good safety characteristics. But this presents a dilemma when choosing the
type of hydride to be used. The safety characteristics of metal hydrides increase with the increase in the
dissociation temperatures. This is so because the higher the dissociative temperatures are, lesser are the
probability of the hydrogen getting discharged spontaneously in the incident of a crash. Also the low
dissociation temperature metal hydrides have a hydrogen fraction which is too low for vehicular uses and
similarly the high dissociation temperature metal hydrides need a temperature of the order of 300Ā°C which is too
high to be used in cars. Also, there is lot of precedent of metal hydrides being too heavy for vehicular use.
Considering all the aspects, metal hydrides can be used in vehicles only if a right compromise is found
between low and high dissociation temperature hydrides. Though using the exhaust heat of the vehicle for the
discharge of hydrogen from the metal hydrides is a field which has a lot of prospective.
5.3 Carbon adsorption
This method of hydrogen storage draws its advantages and functioning from the adsorbent properties of
carbon. The adhesion present between carbon and hydrogen gas can be used to adsorb hydrogen and thus
increase the volumetric density. Carbon nano fibres possess great potential in these aspects due to its adsorbent
properties and the ease of design associated with carbon fibres.
Although the development of nano fibres for this purpose is at a speculative, it opens wide new
possibilities in optimally designed hydrogen storage systems.
5.4 Compressed Hydrogen Gas
As the name suggests, hydrogen gas can be stored in specially designed tanks more effectively by
pressurising it to a certain pre-determined level. The normally used pressure for this purpose is about 5000 psi.
This remarkably improves the density characteristics of hydrogen for vehicular uses. The commonly used tanks
for this purpose are metal or plastic lined, carbon fibre wound pressure vessels.
The advantage of this method is that the designer does not face the challenge of facilitating a tank of a
large size into the design as the tank volume gets considerably reduced. But the greatest advantage is that of
absence of dormancy issues usually found in liquid hydrogen.
However transportation of compressed hydrogen gas is less effective than that of liquid hydrogen.
Compressed hydrogen gas is supportable by small scale as well as large H2 production facilities. Thus the
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production of compressed hydrogen can be effectively incorporated in a larger liquid hydrogen production
facility.
The recurring disadvantages of this method are high cost of production and speculative safety characteristics.
VI. Hydrogen Fuel Cell
6.1 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Working
Like a fuel cell, battery also is an electrochemical device. A battery has all of its chemicals stored
inside, and it converts those chemicals into electricity. This means that a battery eventually "goes dead" and you
either throw it away or recharge it.
For a fuel cell chemicals constantly flow into the cell so it never goes dead. As long as there is a flow
of chemicals into the cell, the electricity flows out of the cell. Most fuel cells in use today use hydrogen and
oxygen as the chemicals.
Fuel Cells generate electricity through an electrochemical process in which the energy stored in a fuel
is converted directly into DC electricity. As electrical energy is generated without combusting fuel, fuel cells are
extremely attractive from an environmental stand point. It consists of three components - a cathode, an anode,
and an electrolyte sandwiched between the two. Oxygen from the air flows through the cathode. A fuel gas
containing hydrogen, such as methane, flows past the anode.
Fig. 1
6.2 Principle
An input fuel is catalytically reacted (electrons removed from the fuel elements) in the fuel cell to
create an electric current. Fuel cells consist of an electrolyte material which is sandwiched in between two thin
electrodes (porous anode and cathode). The input fuel passes over the anode (and oxygen over the cathode)
where it catalytically splits into ions and electrons. The electrons go through an external circuit to serve an
electric load while the ions move through the electrolyte toward the oppositely charged electrode. At the
electrode, ions combine to create by-products, primarily water and heat. Depending on the input fuel and
electrolyte, different chemical reactions will occur.
Fig. 2
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6.3 Hydrogen Fuel Cells
Like every other thing in nature, hydrogen fuel cells too have their pros and cons. To decide whether hydrogen
fuel cells can be a dream come true is however ambiguous.
6.3.1 Advantages
1. Hydrogen is readily available as there is no element in the entire universe as abundant as it.
2. Hydrogen is also a great source of energy as the energy content of hydrogen is the highest per unit of
weight of any fuel, and thus, hydrogen fuel cells are considered as a favorable replacement for fossil fuels.
3. The most important feature of hydrogen fuel cells however is the fact that once the hydrogen gas is burnt it
gives out water as a byproduct.
4. Hydrogen fuel cells have a higher efficiency than diesel or gas engines.
Besides being fuel efficient, hydrogen energy is powerful enough to propel spaceships. The gas is also
non-toxic, which makes it a rarity amongst fuel sources. Nuclear energy, coal, and gasoline are all either toxic or
found in hazardous environments. This makes hydrogen ideal for use in a number of ways other fuel sources
canāt compete against. The usage of hydrogen energy will greatly reduce the dependency on foreign oil.
6.3.2 Disadvantages:
As mentioned before, hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. However, it is still currently
expensive as it is difficult to generate and store.
1. Hydrogen gas requires a lot of work to free it from other elements.
2. Itās expensive and time-consuming to produce.
3. Though hydrogen energy is renewable and its environmental impacts are minimal, we still need other non-
renewable sources like coal, oil and natural gas to separate it from oxygen.
4. Major obstacle to widespread use of fuel cells is in the storage and distribution of the hydrogen fuel.
5. Hydrogen gas is difficult to contain, and most methods add considerable weight to a vehicle.
6. Because of its volatility, the safety of hydrogen will always be a concern.
7. Hydrogen is highly flammable and thus has the potential risks associated with it.
8. The technology and infrastructure required to support the distribution of hydrogen fuel cells is not fully
developed yet and thus hydrogen fuel cells are considered to be at least decades away from its commercial
use.
VII. Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engines
As the drawbacks of FCV'S are a cause of concern, an alternative technology or method is of
paramount importance to bridge the gap between FCV'S and conventional SI/CI Engines. With over a century of
R&D since its inception the IC engines are most reliable and affordable but still environmentally challenging
propulsive systems. This obstacle can however overcome by usage of an alternative source of fuel-like
Hydrogen which on combustion with oxygen gives water. This is possible because we have the existing
technology of SI/CI engines and need to make further relevant changes in order to put it actual use.
An overview of design considerations for a hydrogen fuelled IC Engine are as follows [4];
1. Abnormal combustion: The suppression of abnormal combustion and the backfire has been a particularly
strenuous obstacle to development of hydrogen engines. Also the design of piston should be sufficiently flat so
as to allow proper mixing of air-hydrogen mixture.
2. Air fuel mixture: Wide range of air-fuel mixtures have been tested for backfire free operations. External
mixture formation by means of a port fuel injection method shows increased efficiency, extended lean operation
and reduce NOx emissions over direct injection method, well the possibility of backfire is almost negligible in
DI compared to PFI.
3. Load control: As we are well aware of hydrogen flammability and its flame speed limits, it permits lean
operation of engines thus the engine efficiency and NOx emissions are responsible load control methods.
4. Hydrogen SI engines: The design and development of hydrogen engines depend on the design of spark
plugs, ignition system, piston and crevice volumes, injectors, compression ratio, hotspots, lubrication and in
cylinder turbulence to name a few.
7.1 Advantages
1. High flammability range
2. High speed burning of flame or turbulence in the cylinder and high octane rating of hydrogen all contributes
the increase in engine efficiency.
3. No greenhouse gases are emitted due to absence of carbon content and NOx emissions are being reduced.
6. Hydrogen Powered Vehicles- An Overview
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7.2 Disadvantages
1. Cost of Hydrogen SI engine is more compared to its gasoline counterpart.
2. The power output at low loads and the reduction of NOx emission in subsequent years.
VIII. Comparison of HFCās Vs HICE Vs SI/CI Engines
Taking the test results and various parameters into consideration, the graph (1) shows that the highest
efficiency to load ratio is obtained in HFC'S followed by hydrogen ICE, conventional Diesel and Petrol engines
respectively.
Fig. 3
Thus the final comparison is been drafted in the TABLE (1), which clearly shows that hydrogen powered
vehicles are more fuel efficient than conventional engines.
Table 1:
GASOLINE
INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
ENGINE
GASOLINE HYBRID
HYDROGEN
INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
ENGINE
HYDROGEN FUEL
CELL
ENGINE TYPE SPARK-IGNITION
SPARK-IGNITION &
ELECTRIC MOTOR
COMPRESSED
IGNITION (WITH
ELECTRIC MOTOR)
FUEL CELL &
ELECTRIC MOTOR
AVERAGE ENGINE
EFFICIENCY
~30% ~30% ~40% ~55%
MAX ENGINE
EFFICIENCY
32.5% 32.5% ~40% ~65%
TRANSMISSION
TYPE
STANDARD
CONTINUOUSLY
VARIABLE
TRANSMISSION/
HYBRID
CONTINUOUSLY
VARIABLE
TRANSMISSION/
LIKELY
HYBRID
CONTINUOUSLY
VARIABLE
TRANSMISSION /
LIKELY
HYBRID
TRANSMISSION
EFFICIENCY
~40% ~60% ~60% ~60%
FUEL ECONOMY
(MILES PER
GALLON
EQUIVALENT.)
21 31 41 51
IX. Conclusion
Thus we can see that hydrogen powered vehicles can be significant alternative for the future power
needs and it still has a great scope for research in many areas. Though HFCāS wont venture into mass
production so soon, the scope of Hydrogen ICE looks promising in the immediate future bridging the
technological gap between HFC'S and conventional Petrol/Diesel engines.
This paper instills the future scope and the rising demand of an alternative fuel for conventional
engines and with hydrogen as the fuel; it might just be the one.
7. Hydrogen Powered Vehicles- An Overview
DOI: 10.9790/1684-12234450 www.iosrjournals.org 50 | Page
References
[1]. Gillingham.K (2007) Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles: A Prudent intermediate step or a
step in wrong direction? Stanford global climate and energy project working paper.
[2]. Neiva,l.s,gama,l , A study on the characteristics of the Reforming of Methane; A review, Brazil journal of
Petroleum and Gas,V.4n.3,P.119-127,(2010),ISSN 1982-0593.
[3]. Brian D. James Overview of Hydrogen Storage Technologies, Argonne National Laboratory
[4]. VVN Bhaskar* et.al/International Journal of Innovative Technology and Research, Vol. 1, Issue 1, Dec-
Jan(2013),046-053