This document discusses conjunctive use of surface and groundwater as an agri-tourism resource facilitator in developing nations. It reviews literature on conjunctive water use and case studies of implementations in different countries. The key points are:
1) Conjunctive water use aims to minimize negative impacts and optimize water supply through coordinated management of surface and groundwater. This can enhance sustainable agri-tourism by ensuring reliable water availability.
2) Case studies show successes and failures of conjunctive use programs globally. Benefits include increased incomes, water savings and irrigation expansion. Challenges include poor water quality mixing and lack of awareness.
3) Planning conjunctive use aims to
Shallow rooted crops are very sensitive to both nutrients and water stresses; thus, they have to be frequently irrigated and fertilized with balanced nutrients or the two materials together as fertigation especially in semi-arid and arid areas of agriculture. So, this paper was reviewed with the objective of evaluating the effects of soil water and nutrients interaction on the yields and nutrients use efficiency of shallow rooted vegetable crops. Many research activities have been done regarding the interactions of water and nutrients and their use efficiency in different vegetable crops under different agro-ecological conditions. Short supply of fresh water and fertilizer pollution has promoted many investigations into the interaction effects of water and nutrients on crop yield and nutrient and water use efficiency of crops, and some achievements have been made. The value of soil nutrients in plant growth and agricultural output is closely related to water availability and also the agricultural water productivity is in larger part determined by nutrient supplies. Yield or crop productivity is more or less closely correlated with water and nutrients utilization. Nutrient and water application can destabilize the soil nutrient balance and have long-term negative impacts on crop growth and harvest then on the final productivity of the crop. To overcome these problems it requires different mechanisms to be adopted in areas where nutrients and water stresses are a serious problem. Thus, it is possible to increase crop productivity through utilization of an opportunity of selecting improved variety and balanced nutrients application or application of organic fertilizers for dry areas. In conclusion, integrated nutrient and water management is an important issue to minimize the negative impacts of water and nutrients stresses and to increase both yield potential and quality of shallow rooted crops for producers.
#Awareness#potable water criss#A slide share on Water Resource Management highlighting the emergent requirement of the shortage of potable water and the remedies to be incorporated by all stakeholders to overcome same.
How to design your interventions to build sustainable and climate-resilient food production systems.
Presented at the Virtual forum. More information is available at https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/events/operationalizing-farmer-led-irrigation-development-at-scale/
Presented by IWMI's Ian Makin (Lead Specialist – Revitalizing Irrigation) at the 4th African Regional Conference on Irrigation and Drainage (ARCID), on April 27 in Cairo, Egypt.
Presented as the keynote presentation of the first plenary session (Tools and techniques for improving land and water productivity - I) at the side-event on "Improving Salt and Water Management in the Nile Delta", session 2:
Nepal's history of water management_Dr. Hari Krishna ShreshthaSaciWATERs
Nepal’s History of Water Management Institutions: Is there a Role for them in Adapting to
Water Scarcity?
- Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College
Presented by IWMI's Paul Pavelic at the 3rd International COnference on the Status of Future of the World's Large Rivers, April 18 - 21, 2017, New Dheli, India.
Shallow rooted crops are very sensitive to both nutrients and water stresses; thus, they have to be frequently irrigated and fertilized with balanced nutrients or the two materials together as fertigation especially in semi-arid and arid areas of agriculture. So, this paper was reviewed with the objective of evaluating the effects of soil water and nutrients interaction on the yields and nutrients use efficiency of shallow rooted vegetable crops. Many research activities have been done regarding the interactions of water and nutrients and their use efficiency in different vegetable crops under different agro-ecological conditions. Short supply of fresh water and fertilizer pollution has promoted many investigations into the interaction effects of water and nutrients on crop yield and nutrient and water use efficiency of crops, and some achievements have been made. The value of soil nutrients in plant growth and agricultural output is closely related to water availability and also the agricultural water productivity is in larger part determined by nutrient supplies. Yield or crop productivity is more or less closely correlated with water and nutrients utilization. Nutrient and water application can destabilize the soil nutrient balance and have long-term negative impacts on crop growth and harvest then on the final productivity of the crop. To overcome these problems it requires different mechanisms to be adopted in areas where nutrients and water stresses are a serious problem. Thus, it is possible to increase crop productivity through utilization of an opportunity of selecting improved variety and balanced nutrients application or application of organic fertilizers for dry areas. In conclusion, integrated nutrient and water management is an important issue to minimize the negative impacts of water and nutrients stresses and to increase both yield potential and quality of shallow rooted crops for producers.
#Awareness#potable water criss#A slide share on Water Resource Management highlighting the emergent requirement of the shortage of potable water and the remedies to be incorporated by all stakeholders to overcome same.
How to design your interventions to build sustainable and climate-resilient food production systems.
Presented at the Virtual forum. More information is available at https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/events/operationalizing-farmer-led-irrigation-development-at-scale/
Presented by IWMI's Ian Makin (Lead Specialist – Revitalizing Irrigation) at the 4th African Regional Conference on Irrigation and Drainage (ARCID), on April 27 in Cairo, Egypt.
Presented as the keynote presentation of the first plenary session (Tools and techniques for improving land and water productivity - I) at the side-event on "Improving Salt and Water Management in the Nile Delta", session 2:
Nepal's history of water management_Dr. Hari Krishna ShreshthaSaciWATERs
Nepal’s History of Water Management Institutions: Is there a Role for them in Adapting to
Water Scarcity?
- Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College
Presented by IWMI's Paul Pavelic at the 3rd International COnference on the Status of Future of the World's Large Rivers, April 18 - 21, 2017, New Dheli, India.
Wireless Network Security Architecture with Blowfish Encryption ModelIOSR Journals
Abstract: In this research paper ,we developed a model for a large network, wireless nodes are interconnected and each can be considered as a node processor that offer services to other node processors connected to a specific network. A very high proportion of the nodes that offer services need to carry out an authentication process so as to make an access request to the node offering the service. In this context, an integrated reconfigurable network security architecture moved to the application layer has become the need of the day for secure wireless data sharing. The security schemes of the seven layer OSI architecture need to be placed intrinsically in the wireless node itself and should be capable of supporting the MAC layer, IP address based layer and the routing protocols of the network layer. This work focuses on the use of emulator and embedded hardware architectures for wireless network security. In this work, the individual nodes can have a unique security signature pattern maintained by respective wireless nodes using an encryption algorithm and this is made dynamic. The metrics includes latency, throughput, Scalability, Effects of data transfer operation on node processor and application data located in the processor Keywords:Wireless Network security, Embedded hardware, Reconfigurable architecture, blowfish algorithm
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Dirac-Maxwell’s equations, retained for magnetic monopoles, are generalized by introducing
magnetic scale field. It allows the magnetic monopoles to be time-dependent and the potentials to be Lorentz
gauge free. The non-conserved part or the time-dependent part of the magnetic charge density is responsible to
produce the magnetic scalar field which further contributes to the magnetic and electric vector fields. This
contribution makes possible to create an ideal square wave magnetic field from an exponentially rising and
decaying magnetic charge.
Tetra Glycine dihydrated Calcium Chloride (TGDCC) single Crystal has been grown by slow evaporation techniques. Urea has been introduced by concentration ratio to the parental crystal. The investigation of this research work is to find the rate of change of optical and structural behaviors of the crystal by urea through UV-Vis, P-XRD, XRD, FTIR and SHG studies.
Effect of Poling Field and Non-linearity in Quantum Breathers in FerroelectricsIOSR Journals
Abstract : Lithium tantalate is technologically one of the most important ferroelectric materials with a low poling field that has several applications in the field of photonics and memory switching devices. In a Hamiltonian system, such as dipolar system, the polarization behavior of such ferroelectrics can be well-modeled by Klein-Gordon (K-G) equation. To probe the quantum states related to discrete breathers, the same K-G lattice is quantized to give rise to quantum breathers (QBs) that are explained by a periodic boundary condition. The gap between the localized and delocalized phonon-band is a function of impurity content that is again related to the effect of pinning of domains due to antisite tantalum defects in the system, i.e. a point of easier switching within the limited amount of data on poling field.
Structural elucidation, Identification, quantization of process related impur...IOSR Journals
Major process related unknown impurity associated with the synthesis of Hydralazine hydrochloride bulk drug was detected by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and was subjected to high resolution accurate liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy (HR/AM-LCMS) for identification. The proposed impurity was isolated from Hydralazine hydrochloride active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) by preparative chromatographic method and was injected on HPLC for comparison of retention time with that of the unknown process related impurity in Hydralazine hydrochloride. The molecular ion peak of preparatively isolated impurity and that of unknown process related impurity in Hydralazine hydrochloride were compared for confirmation. The postulated structure was unambiguously confirmed with the help of HR/AM- LC MS/MS, NMR and FTIR data proposed to be 1-(2-phthalazin-1-ylhydrazino)phthalazine (Hazh Dimer). This impurity of Hydralazine hydrochloride is not been previously reported. A rapid Acquity H-class gradient method with runtime of 15.0min was developed for Quantitation on Unisphere Cyno column and validated for parameters such as accuracy, precision, linearity and range, robustness. The LOD and LOQ of method were 0081% and 0.0246% respectively.
Review and Performance Comparison of Distributed Wireless Reprogramming Proto...IOSR Journals
Abstract:A Reprogramming service should be efficient, reliable and secured in Wireless sensor network.
Wireless reprogramming for wireless sensor network emphasize over the process of changing or improving the
functionality of simulation or existing code. For challenging and on demand security purpose, secure and
distributed routing protocols such as SDRP and ISDRP were developed. This paper reviews and compares the
propagation delay for two reprogramming protocols, SDRP and ISDRP, which based on hierarchy of energies
in network. Both are based on identity-based cryptography. But in the improved protocol the keys are
distributed to the network as per the sorting and communication capabilities to improve the broadcast or
communication nature of the network. Moreover, ISDRP demonstrates the security concepts, which deals over
the key encryption properties using heap sort algorithm and the confidentiality parameter is enhanced by
changing the private key values after certain interval of time for cluster head in respect to different public keys.
The ISDRP shows high efficiency rate clearly with the throughput and propagation results by implementation in
practice over SRDP.
Keywords: identity-based cryptography,ISDRP, heapsort algorithm, Reprogramming, SDRP, Wireless sensor
network.
Abstract: Synthesis of 2-(1, 3- dihydro- 3 - oxo- 2H - pyridylpyrr- 2- ylidene)-1, 2-dihydro- 3H- pyridylpyrrol- 3- one, polycyclic bi-indolinedione vat dye was carried out using a heterocyclic compound, 2-aminopyridine, chlorinated ethanoic acid and sodium hydroxide. The aromatic glycine that resulted as an intermediate to this new polycyclic bi-indolinedione compound was fused with admixture sodamide: sodium hydroxide: potassium hydroxide and oxidized by acidified concentrated solution of ferric chloride using hydrochloric acid. This dye showed good fastness properties on cotton, polyester, dacron, silk, wool and paper. The spectral analysis was in agreement with the proposed structure of the compound. UV: (DMSO) λmax nm; 609. IR:(KBr) ʋ cm-1; 3402, 2251.66, 2078.00, 1650.25, 1398.18, 1005.50 825.37, 764.03, 627.00. 1H-NMR :( DMSO-d6) δppm; 6.6, 7.2, 8.0; 13C- NMR: (DMSO-d6) δppm; 190.11, 188.20, 157.01, 155.21, 149.60, 148.11, 136.02, 134.50, 130.0, 128.94, 27.53, 126.31, 124.30, 123.91. MS: m/z; 32, 77, 105,181, 264 (M+).
Exact Analytical Expression for Outgoing Intensity from the Top of the Atmosp...IOSR Journals
This research is a part of the work devoted on the application of analytical Discrete Ordinate (ADO) method to the polarized monochromatic radiative transfer equation undergoing anisotropic scattering with source function matrix in a finite coupled Atmosphere –Ocean media having flat interface boundary conditions involving specular reflection and transmission matrix. Discontinuities in the derivatives of the Stokes vector with respect to the cosine of the polar angle at smooth interface between the two media with different refractive indices (air and water) is tackled by using a suitable quadrature scheme devised earlier. Atmosphere and ocean are assumed to be homogeneous. No stratification is adopted in the two media. Exact expression for the
emergent radiation intensity vector from the top of the atmosphere is derived. Exact expressions for the emergent polarized radiation intensity vector from the air-water interface as well as from any point of the two medium in any direction can also be derived in terms of eigenvectors and eigenvalues.
Effect of Fly Ash Particles on the Mechanical Properties of Zn-22%Al Alloy vi...IOSR Journals
In the present investigation, a Zn-22%Al alloy is used as the matrix material and fly ash as the filler material. The composite is produced using powder metallurgy techniques. The fly ash is added in 2%, 4%, and 6% by wt% to the sintering metal. The composite is tested for hardness, density and tensile strength test. Microstructure examination is done using a high resolution optical microscope to obtain the distribution of fly ash in the Zn-Al matrix. Test results indicate that as fly ash content is increased, there is a considerable increase in hardness and tensile strength but decrease in density.
A Meta Analysis on Review of Studies on Water Managementijtsrd
"Water is one of the most important resources available on this earth that has an influence on human activities. All important aspects such as agriculture, industry, day to day life is dependent on water. It is the most important factor for survival of life on this earth. As such it becomes imperative that we find out what is the status of various studies that have been conducted on various aspects of water management.The present paper is an attempt to summarise various aspects of issues involved with use and consumption of water and studies involved therein. It focuses on theoretical concepts like definition of water management, compounding of water as well as actual practices of water management in various parts of the world. Prof Anuradha Gaikwad | Dr S. D. Kadam ""A Meta-Analysis on Review of Studies on Water Management"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Special Issue | Fostering Innovation, Integration and Inclusion Through Interdisciplinary Practices in Management , March 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23081.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/strategic-management/23081/a-meta-analysis-on-review-of-studies-on-water-management/prof-anuradha-gaikwad"
EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE ON THE CURRENT CONDITIONS OF WATER RESOURCE INFRASTRUCTURE...indexPub
Water is an essential and critical resource for human, animal, and plant survival and continued existence on planet Earth. Water is increasingly becoming a scarce resource; however, the issue of water scarcity has been exacerbated by the intensity of climate change conditions as well as aging water resource infrastructure in many countries, more especially in developing countries such as South Africa. Therefore, there is an urgent need to upgrade water resource infrastructure in South African cities in order to alleviate the stress on the current systems in place.
An Overview of Eritrea’s Water ResourcesIJERDJOURNAL
Abstract: Water is central to national development that includes many challenges in the vital sectors such as food, energy, health and economic development. Cognizant of this fact, the government and people of Eritrea have been diligently working towards developing the water resources sector. Policies pertaining to water resources, food security, environment, and water and drought calamities mitigation were formulated and being put into effect. Remarkable achievements made on water conservation and safe and adequate water supply coverage by Eritrea can be considered as an important milestone. However, frequent assessment of water resources potentials at different levels of the country is an aspect that is fundamental to effective water resources development and management. Past literature on this subject showed that large scale studies have not been carried out and small scale studies were limited in scope towards the national perspective. Therefore, the above lacuna calls for investigating if the present water management practices are adequate to meet the challenges and the institutional framework is comprehensive to support the system. This paper attempts to review the country’s water resources status and education system. The review is primarily directed towards a feasibility study entitled “Establishment of National Water Technology Institute (NWTI)” conducted in 2013. The report included a summary of relevant documents from different sectors. Major contributions of this include reports of the Ministry of Land, Water and Environment (MoLWE), the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), consultation of experts and visits to selected sites by the study team. Findings from this review emphasised on the need for some fundamental and pre-emptive changes to be introduced in the management of the national water systems as well as establishment of a well organized National Water Technology Institute to carry out training, research, outreach and consultancy works.
Karkheh Basin Focal Project: Synthesis of approach, findings and lessons. Poolad Karimi on behalf of the BFP1 team 2nd International Forum on Water & Food Addis Ababa, Ethiopia November 2008
AN OVERVIEW OF INTEGRATED THEORY OF IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY AND UNIFORMITY AND ...Venkataraju Badanapuri
The irrigation efficiency, crop water use efficiency, and irrigation uniformity evaluation terms that are relevant to irrigation systems and management practices currently used in India, and around the world. The definitions and equations described can be used by crop consultants, irrigation district personnel, and university, state, and private agency personnel to evaluate how efficiently irrigation water is applied and/or used by the crop, and can help to promote better or improved use of water resources in agriculture. As available water resources become scarcer, more emphasis is given to efficient use of irrigation water for maximum economic return and water resources sustainability.
DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
Essentials of Automations: Optimizing FME Workflows with ParametersSafe Software
Are you looking to streamline your workflows and boost your projects’ efficiency? Do you find yourself searching for ways to add flexibility and control over your FME workflows? If so, you’re in the right place.
Join us for an insightful dive into the world of FME parameters, a critical element in optimizing workflow efficiency. This webinar marks the beginning of our three-part “Essentials of Automation” series. This first webinar is designed to equip you with the knowledge and skills to utilize parameters effectively: enhancing the flexibility, maintainability, and user control of your FME projects.
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In today's fast-changing business world, Companies that adapt and embrace new ideas often need help to keep up with the competition. However, fostering a culture of innovation takes much work. It takes vision, leadership and willingness to take risks in the right proportion. Sachin Dev Duggal, co-founder of Builder.ai, has perfected the art of this balance, creating a company culture where creativity and growth are nurtured at each stage.
Accelerate your Kubernetes clusters with Varnish CachingThijs Feryn
A presentation about the usage and availability of Varnish on Kubernetes. This talk explores the capabilities of Varnish caching and shows how to use the Varnish Helm chart to deploy it to Kubernetes.
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Let's dive deeper into the world of ODC! Ricardo Alves (OutSystems) will join us to tell all about the new Data Fabric. After that, Sezen de Bruijn (OutSystems) will get into the details on how to best design a sturdy architecture within ODC.
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Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 4. In this session, we will cover Test Manager overview along with SAP heatmap.
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Watch this recorded webinar about real-time monitoring of application performance. See how to integrate Apache JMeter, the open-source leader in performance testing, with InfluxDB, the open-source time-series database, and Grafana, the open-source analytics and visualization application.
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Session Overview
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De-mystifying Zero to One: Design Informed Techniques for Greenfield Innovati...
O017117786
1. IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering (IOSR-JCE)
e-ISSN: 2278-0661,p-ISSN: 2278-8727, Volume 17, Issue 1, Ver. I (Jan – Feb. 2015), PP 77-86
www.iosrjournals.org
DOI: 10.9790/0661-17117786 www.iosrjournals.org 77 | Page
Conjunctive Use of Surface and Groundwater as Agri-tourism
Resource Facilitator: Discourse Analysis for Planning in
Developing Nations
Achieng’ David Omondi1
, Okungu Jared Ouma2
, Hayombe Patrick O.3
and
Agong Stephen G.4
1,2
Students, PhD in Planning, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology, Kenya
3
Senior Lecturer, PhD, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology, Kenya
3
Professor, Director of KLIP Programme and Vice Chancellor, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science
and Technology, Kenya (December, 2014)
Abstract: Ecotourism is increasingly exhibited as a component of the conventional tourism that needs
augmentation with enhanced availability of water resources in sustainable modes. This sustainability is
attainable through conjunctive use of surface and groundwater. This paper reviews literature and theoretical
ideas from various authors and practical examples of implementations in different countries. This is with an aim
of analytically setting up general spotlights that can be relied upon with a focus on surface and ground water as
ecotourism resource enabler in developing countries. The paper Introduction; the nuance of conjunctive use of
water resources on agri-tourism; case studies; technical and management distinctions; and planning and
management for conjunctive water use. The paper also covers spontaneous and planned conjunctive water use
systems; key advantages; potential benefits; summary of significant aspects of conjunctive water use planning;
overcoming the main impediments to planned conjunctive use; and proposed policy and institutional issues for
developing nations. It relies heavily on authored work and all such information used here has been
acknowledged in the references.
Key Words: Conjunctive Use; Surface Water; Groundwater; Discourse Analysis; Agri-tourism Resource;
Planning
I. Introduction
The concept of agri-tourism calls for harmonious combination of the use of all sources of water in
order to minimise the undesirable physical, environmental and economical effects of each solution and to
optimise the water demand/supply balance through proper planning as agri-tourism resource enablers.
Ecotourism must not intrinsically be associated with the demand of engineered infrastructure, but rather geared
towards sustainable appreciation of ecotourism products, (Okungu, Hayombe and Agong, 2014), but can be
augmented with reservoir balance to ensure year-round availability. This further plays into the concept of
conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater for enhancement of agri-tourism or farm-based tourism,
which has been the way of life for several years world over.
As suggested by Achieng,’ Hayombe and Agong,’ (2014) positioning of ecotourism destination
enhances brand imaging, but (Okungu, Hayombe and Agong, 2014) suggest that this cannot be sufficiently
achieved without preliminary resource base – water to sustain agri-tourism - which ought to be enhanced
through apt planning and management. Hence, agri-tourism development and water resources planning and
management need to be deliberated in more detail as part of sustainable development processes. For that matter
the availability of water for agri-tourism resources require complex combinations of cultural practices
(Achieng,’ et al, 2014), ecological sensitivity (Okungu, et al, 2014) in the forms of natural features, traditional
crops, recreationable sites, and associated contemporary and cultural activities that are influenced by an array of
factors. Any such factors do nt attract significance for evaluation if the major driving force – the water resource
or water mass – is inadequately available for the subsistence of the tourism industry.
In a nutshell tourism industry requires water as a natural contributor to agri-tourism products and the
same in its fresh potable mode is necessary for consumption by potential ecotourists. It is important to note that
eco-tourists would not travel in areas which are adversely water-scarce, or those with food insecurity.
The surface and ground water resources are available in many forms in several developed and the
developing nations. This is evident from a clear examination of the global water balance. However, the
resources often dwindle because of the water cycle systems, which are naturally controlled by global climatic
phenomena. The water cycle systems often deprive the availability of the water masses in the areas that are
already earmarked as agri-tourism resource base and destinations. This is the reason why some identified areas
experience severe floods while others are marred by severe aridity- all in unreliable and interchanging patterns.
2. Conjunctive Use of Surface and Groundwater as Agri-tourism Resource Facilitator....
DOI: 10.9790/0661-17117786 www.iosrjournals.org 78 | Page
For this reason there is a valid pointer to the perceived cause for alarm about the dying-off concept of agri-
tourism ventures across potential destinations.
The lack of appropriate planning and management of the water resource compounds the challenges of
sustainable surface and groundwater management in most developing nations and this is a further pointer to the
inadequate water-based ecotourism in various areas of the developing nations. Major knowledge gaps have been
observed in the unsustainable water availability as expressed above under the water based ecotourism context.
It, therefore, calls for a clear understanding of the conjunctive use of surface and groundwater as ecotourism
resource facilitator.
The Nuance of Conjunctive Use of Water Resources on Agri-tourism
Conjunctive of water use has been defined in more ways than one, but in general it is distinct as the
allocation of surface water and groundwater in terms of quantity and/or quality with an aim of achieving
various objectives while fulfilling certain limitations. Coe (1990) defines conjunctive use with reference to
stream diversion systems as the management of groundwater and /or surface water in a synchronized
progression to a clear conclusion. This implies that the total yield of such a system over a period of years
exceeds the sum of yields of the detached components of the system resulting from an uncoordinated operation.
Agri-tourism can be used as one of the ways of enabling socio-economic freedom for a nation, such
coordination should be speeded up and specifically geared towards enhancing the abundance of surface water so
that the needs of agri-tourism are fulfilled.
According to Evans et al (2013), conjunctive use of water refers to the practice at the farm level of
sourcing water from both wells and irrigation canals. It also refers to a strategic approach at the irrigation
command level where surface water and groundwater inputs are centrally managed as an input to irrigation
systems. Agricultural & Rural Development (2006) illustrate that conjunctive water use imply the instantaneous
utilization of surface water and groundwater to meet crop demand.
Otherwise FAO (1995) illustrate that it is possible to harmoniously combine of both sources of water in
order to minimise the undesirable physical, environmental and economical effects of each solution and to
optimise the water demand/supply balance. Considering all these definitions, the aim of conjunctive use and
management is to maximise the benefits that might arise from the natural characteristics of surface and
groundwater water use; characteristics that through planned integration of both water sources, provide
complementary and optimal productivity and water use efficiency outcomes.
Due to tourism’s linkage with other sectors, it can have a high multiplier effect on the agricultural
economy, which can be boosted by the culture of agri-tourism and as a result the capacity to stimulate demand
for locally-produced goods and services, may provide a wide market for agricultural products, promote regional
development, and even create new commercial and industrial enterprises (Achieng,’ et al, 2014).
II. Case Studies: Successes and Failures of Conjunctive Use
The National Survey on Recreation and the Environment 2000-01 indicate that each year about 63
million Americans travel several miles to visit Agri-tourism farms and spend between $5 to $50 per person in
farm recreational activities (George & Rilla, 2008). Such a venture would be enhanced is water resources are
sustainably available and the concept of conjunctive use would ensure this. In Morocco and Argentina foster
unstructured conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water is practiced for irrigation purposes through
irrigation canal commands. These canals have largely arisen due to inadequate surface water supply to meet
irrigation demand. In other cases the water is made abundant for tourism venture purposes. Many other
examples from developed countries also show that it is not simply a developing country problem – it is
approaching an inherent problem wherever canal-based irrigation is practiced and where there are challenges in
terms of reliability of water supply and quality (Steenberge, 2011).
In India, in the course of a collaborative study, which lasted for ten years, specialists from the
International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Roorkee University, the Water and Land Management
Institute, and the Uttar Pradesh Irrigation Department established that the utilization of the modified drains for
monsoon flood irrigation yielded a lot of benefits which included the following: a 26% augmentation to the
disposable income to the farmer; a decline in the average depth of groundwater from 12 meters in 1988 to 6.5
meters in 1998; annual savings on energy of 75.6 million kilowatt hours and savings of pumping cost of Rs. 180
million; an increase in canal irrigation from 1,251 hectares in 1988 to 37,108 hectares in 1998; a 15-fold
increase in rice area; and a 50 percent reduction in conveyance losses in canals (IWMI 2002).
Mendoza Aquifers in Argentina, are exceedingly developed within and outside of existing irrigation-
canal commands. The aquifers are characterized by an upstream arid outwash Peneplain hydrogeological setting.
The aquifers are recharged directly from the Mendoza and Tununyan rivers as they emerge from the Andean
mountain chain and indirectly from irrigation canals and irrigated fields (Foster and Garduno, 2006). The
Departamento General de Irrigacion (DGI) is the independent water resource authority that is responsible for
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water management in the entire province, down to the primary canals and the delivery of water to Water Users͛
Associations. Groundwater abstraction is the main source of water for irrigation outside the command of main
canals and is used to supplement surface water during critical crop demand in years of low flow and this
enhances chances of sustainability of agri-tourism in such regions.
In Australia, numerous water resource systems are considered when attempts are made to address
issues of conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water in the Burdekin delta area, Queensland, Australia.
Within this arrangement, there is significant interaction between surface water and groundwater resources;
hence, harmonized policies have been formulated and enacted for surface water and groundwater planning and
management. The Burdekin delta is a major sugar production region in Australia and overlies a shallow
groundwater aquifer which is hydro-geologically linked to the environmentally sensitive wetlands, waterways,
estuaries and the Great Barrier Reef. In addition to irrigation supply, the aquifer also supplies potable water for
three towns in the delta (Hafi, 2002). This inadvertently enhances agri-tourism culture.
In Pakistan, most groundwater exploitation occurs via conjunctive use with surface water and
conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water allows farmers to cope with the unreliable surface water
supplies and to achieve more secure and predictable yields. However there are adverse impacts of conjunctive
use where poor quality groundwater is utilized adding large amounts of salt in the root zone, and hence causing
additional salinization problems to those arising from shallow water tables. In some areas, the salinity of the
groundwater resource is such that there is full reliance upon canal deliveries to sustain irrigated agriculture.
Even in regions in which groundwater is considered to have been put to extensive use; the briny nature of the
resource commonly requires mixing with surface water prior to application to crops. However Qureshi et al,
(2004) noted that farmers are not fully aware of the ratios required when mixing the two water types and hence
negative consequences of irrigating with high salinity water have been observed.
In Utter Pradesh, a planned approach was implemented at the regional scale aimed at effecting changes
to the water supply/demand balance by considering the nature of the complete water cycle for the area and how
this behaved spatially and temporally (Evans et al, 2013). A series of actions were then undertaken to optimize
the existing infrastructure so as to enable a larger amount of water to be accessed in a more efficient manner. It
seems there was little in the way of State-sponsored investment and no apparent changes to management and/or
regulation levels. However local ownership was focused on increasing the total water availability. The benefits
of these actions have been widely reported.
In Spain, there was an evolution of conjunctive use as a process associated with the expanding
irrigation industry during wet years via surface water diversions. As groundwater resources were identified
through the region, more and more groundwater abstraction was incorporated into the system. In response to an
expansion in the irrigated area, more intense use of surface water during wet years increased, leading to
substantial increases in overall use. These examples demonstrate a bottom-up approach that earlier proposed and
implemented by irrigators that have now been incorporated into legally sanctioned schemes (Sahuquillo, 2005).
The basin is characterized by large surface water reservoirs situated over a karstic limestone aquifer,
with resulting high leakage rates to groundwater. In addition, the Mijares River also leaks and recharges the
local alluvial water table aquifer. Surface water or groundwater is used as the water source depending on water
availability, both in stream and in storage. The beneficial aspect of the relationship between surface water and
aquifer is that whenever more surface water is available, and hence irrigators are using from this source,
recharge rates to the groundwater system are higher. This provides a natural counter-cyclical process where the
groundwater resource is recharged during periods of low groundwater demand.
In the United States surface water was generally first developed and used to its maximum to undertake
irrigation – usually fully developed by the early 1900s (Bredehoef, 2011). Bredehoeft points out that a large
number of these river valleys contained alluvial deposits whose groundwater systems were well connected to the
rivers. As surface water was fully appropriated, and as knowledge of the groundwater systems grew,
groundwater became the new water source and development followed, in a generally unregulated fashion.
Institutions to manage abstraction have evolved over time, however, they have generally favored the prior rights
to water and required the newer water users, that is, the groundwater users, to provide new water to offset their
pumping impacts. Consideration of opportunities to solve these challenges does not appear to have explored
conjunctive resource management.
These examples highlight a common history and common challenges world over. In nearly all cases
where conjunctive use is being practiced (either spontaneously or in a planned manner) surface water remains
the dominant historical water source. Either through expansion, technology uplift, new knowledge or
deteriorating water access/quality there the literature cite attempted moves towards incorporating groundwater
into the water management system. The sustainability of these systems are a sure way of ensuring that water is
available for agriculture either through irrigation or through the natural cycle. These can ultimately enhance the
desired year-round provision for agri-tourism development in most countries. As such economic development
would be achieved.
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The Planning Concept of Conjunctive Water Use and Implication on Agri-tourism
A key characteristic of planning the conjunctive use is that it usually aims at the use of very large
natural groundwater storage associated with most aquifers to ‘buffer’ the availability of surface water against the
high flow variability and drought susceptibility of various surface watercourses – making it particularly
important for the sake of mitigating climate changes impacts, which in many scenarios lead to increased
droughts intensity (World Bank, 2010). A second important feature is that planning the conjunctive use of water
is often the best way to confront serious problems of groundwater saline and soil water-logging on alluvial
plains.
The planning concept of conjunctive water use implies utilization of the overall fresh water supply
more efficiently: groundwater use by individuals supplement limited surface water supplies as conjunctive water
use. On the other hand conjunctive water use is a large, elaborate regional water management programs that
store large volumes of surface water below ground during normal and high rainfall years and then pump large
volumes of groundwater from storage during drought years. Fundamentally, all these illustrate conjunctive water
use even though they may differ in scope, scale, and the degree of coordination required among water users.
Both approaches use surface water and groundwater together to improve the overall availability and reliability
of water as agri-tourism resource enabler. Both may share common purposes for using surface water and
groundwater in combination such as managing diminishing surface water supplies, convenience, economics, and
using water reasonably and beneficially.
Conjunctive use of water primarily changes the timing in the flow of existing water sources by shifting
when and where it is stored but does not result in new sources of water. The use of water conjunctively is often
incidental as water users intuitively shift between surface water and groundwater sources to cope with changes
and shortages (Dudley, & Fulton, 2006). While conjunctive use may prove to be successful for individuals or
groups of water users to manage an instantaneous situation, it is also possible for conjunctive use to
inadvertently harm the groundwater basin and other groundwater users that are not really involved in
conjunctive use but that rely on similar groundwater basin.
Fig. 1: Recovery and recharge - two principle operational components of conjunctive water management
(source: Dudley, & Fulton, 2006).
Evans et al, (2013) illustrates that whilst the groundwater aquifer provides natural storage systems to
source groundwater during periods of peak demands, most favorable management may take advantage of
underutilized or unutilized storage capacity through properly managed aquifer recharge whereby recharge is
enhanced for future recovery. From a conjunctive use point of view, such management advancement facilitates
surplus surface water to be confined and made use of at times when a reservoir or stream flow is depleted and
when the water is considered important for other purposes. This further ensures that natural water balance is
enhanced for agri-tourism development. Groundwater recharge enhancement can be ensured via injection down
recharge wells, storage of water in infiltration basins or slowing the natural flow of surface waters to induce
additional groundwater recharge.
Technical and Management Distinction between Surface Water and Groundwater
The characteristics of the two primary water sources associated with conjunctive use and management
(i.e. groundwater compared with surface water) are inherently different; differences that must be appreciated
when optimizing their use. A summary of typical characteristics associated with groundwater and surface water
resources is provided in Table 1.
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Table 1 Typical characteristic of groundwater and surface water (Source: Evans et al, 2013)
Characteristic Groundwater Surface water
1. Response time Slow Quick
2. Time lag Long Short
3. Size of storage Large Small
4. Security of supply High Low
5. Water quality Poor Good
6. Spatial management scale Diffuse Linear
7. Ownership Private Public
8. Flexibility of supply Very flexible Not flexible
Physical differences and differences in the history of development of the two resource types provide
both challenges and benefits to conjunctive management and use. To make progress on conjunctive
management, the specific characteristics of groundwater and surface water in the target region must be assessed.
Planning and Management for Conjunctive Water Use
Conjunctive planning and management of water resources, in this case the surface water and
groundwater, occurs when system administrators plan and control ground and surface water simultaneously
(Agricultural & Rural Development, 2006). This may be achieved by modifying the configuration of the surface
system and its operating procedures. It is less extensive than conjunctive use because it necessitates institutional
and coordinating mechanisms that few countries do not have. Conjunctive management of water is complex and
can be controversial. However, it can be dominant, particularly in water-scarce areas and during the times of
drought. This is because the failure to integrate conjunctive water resources might result in groundwater
overexploitation.
Conjunctive planning and management of water may entail a variety of water resources planning
mechanisms and different operational and administrative approaches that might cross over various institutional
and political (Dudley, & Fulton, 2006). Clearly, there is no perfect approach to conjunctive water management.
Rather, it requires balancing recharge with recovery and monitoring to validate the conjunctive water
management. Management should occur at local levels where the unique set of conditions is well comprehended
and where the concerned water users can take part and stay informed. The political climate, environmental
concerns, institutional constraints, and economic considerations, are important when put into practice the
conjunctive water management.
Conjunctive water management employs the ideologies of conjunctive water use, where surface water
and groundwater are utilized in amalgamation so as to improve water availability and reliability. But, it also
comprises important components of groundwater management such as monitoring, evaluation of monitoring
data to develop local management objectives, and use of monitoring data to establish and enforce local
management policies. Scientific studies are necessary in order to sustain conjunctive water management. They
provide important information that enhances understanding of the geology of aquifer systems, how and where
surface water replenishes the groundwater, and flow directions and gradients of groundwater.
At the farm scale, conjunctive use is often implemented on a day to day basis with ͚management͛
characterised by low level decisions incorporating factors such as resource availability, costs of delivery to the
crop, tradability of unused allocation and water quality (Evans et al, 2013). Jointly, these aspects contribute to
cost reduction, optimising production scale and profit maximization. Nevertheless, at the irrigation command
level, planned conjunctive water use and management aims at advanced objectives. Planned conjunctive use is
expected to optimise productivity and equity in the management of surface water and groundwater resources
(World Bank 2006) and promote agri-tourism development and overall, the economic, environmental and social
sustainability.
Based on the relative volumetric mix of the two resources, and the manner in which associated
irrigation has been historically evolved, the nature of conjunctive use at any one irrigation command may be
significantly different. For instance, management approaches should be diverse where a majority of the
available water is obtained from one of the two resources as compared to the situation where neither resource
supplies a majority. Additionally, groundwater may have detached roles within a conjunctive management
structure; it can be considered as a storage mechanism to smooth out the supply/demand balance either across
seasonal patterns of water availability; ,it may be used as an alternative method to distribute water across
irrigation commands or across climate variability; or it can be used to manage shallow water tables so as to
reduce salinity and water-logging. Management (and governance) approaches must be aware of these subtleties
in attributes and plan appropriately. The table below presents summary of types of aquifer recharge planning
strategies
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Table 2 Summary of types of aquifer recharge planning strategies (Foster et al. 2003)
Type General Features Preferred Application
Water
harvesting
- Dug shafts/tanks to which local storm runoffs
are led by gravity for permeation
- Field soil/water conservation through
terracing or contour ploughing or afforestation
- In communities of fairly low-density
population with leaky subsoil
- Extensively appropriate, particularly on
sloping land in upper catchments
In-channel
structures
- Check/rubber dams to confine runoff by
sediment retention and clear water generation
- Recharge dam with reservoir used for bed
permeation to generate clear water
- Riverbed baffling to redirect surge and
amplify permeation
- Subsurface cut-off by impervious membrane
and/or puddle clay in furrow to impound base flow
- In gullies with uncertain runoff
frequency and high stream slope
- Upper valley with sufficient runoff and
on deep water-table aquifer
- Wide braided rivers on piedmont plain
- On broad basins with thin alluvium
overlying impervious bedrock
Off-channel
techniques
- Artificial basins/canals into which storm
runoff is diverted with pre-basin for sediment removal
- Land distribution by overflow of riparian land
occasionally cultivated with flood-tolerant crops
- On superficial alluvial deposits of low
permeability
- On permeable alluvium, with flood relief
benefits also
Injection wells - Recharge boreholes into permeable aquifer
horizons used alternately for injection/pumping
- Storage/recovery of surplus water from
potable treatment plants
On a broad perspective the benefits attributed to optimizing conjunctive use of surface and groundwater
has been investigated for several years through theoretical replica and investigations of physical schemes (Evans
et al, 2013). These benefits take the form of: Increases in productivity; Increased capacity to irrigate via larger
areas; Economic gains; Energy savings; Infrastructure optimization; and Water resource efficiency.
However, there are few published analyses of the actual socio-economic benefits that can be attributed
to the implementation of conjunctive use management in specific irrigation commands. This is a major
impediment to further communicating the positive messages regarding conjunctive use. However, an example of
such studies includes Bredehoeft and Young (1983), who modelled a twofold increase in net benefit arising
from conjunctive management. Another is the Agriculture and Rural Development Group, World Bank (2006),
which reported a 26 percent increase in net farmer income, substantial energy savings, increased irrigation and
substantial increase in irrigated crop area for Uttar Pradesh, India, as a result of conjunctive management of
monsoon floodwaters in combination with a regional groundwater system.
Spontaneous and Planned Conjunctive Water Use Systems
Planned conjunctive surface water and groundwater management and use is usually practiced at the
state or regional level and can optimize water allocation with respect to surface water availability and
distribution. It can, hence reduce the evaporative water losses in surface water storages and minimizing energy
costs of irrigation in terms of kWhr/ha (Foster et al. 2010). Planned conjunctive management is best
implemented at the beginning of development initiatives, for instance those that are geared towards initiation of
agri-tourism development. This may, however, be difficult to achieve when attempts are made to redesign the
approach, once water resource development is well advanced, like in the developed countries.
Where groundwater and surface water is used conjunctively in various parts of the world, spontaneous
use prevails. As asserted by Foster and Steenbergen (2011) unstructured conjunctive use of shallow aquifers in
irrigation-canal-commands is driven by the capacity for groundwater to buffer the variability of surface water
availability. Because agri-tourism belongs to the niche products which include cultural tourism, eco-tourism,
sports tourism and lake tourism, there is need to enable the following aspects of water and environmental
sustainability:
(1). Greater water supply security;
(2). Avoidance of excessive surface water or groundwater depletion.
(3). Securing existing crops and permitting new crop types to be established;
(4). Larger water yield than would generally be possible using only one source;
(5). Better timing for irrigation, including extension of the cropping season;
(6). Reduced environmental impact;
According to Foster et al. (2010) the most common state of affairs in which spontaneous conjunctive use of
surface water and groundwater resources occurs is where canal-based irrigation commands are:
a) Inadequately maintained and unable to sustain design flows throughout the system;
b) Poorly administered, allowing unauthorized or excessive off-takes;
c) Over-stretched with respect to surface water availability for dry season diversion;
d) Tied to rigid canal-water delivery schedules and unable to respond to crop needs.
Moreover, unplanned conjunctive use is driven to a greater extent by the poor reliability of quality of
surface water supplied for agricultural utilization. Ground water harnessed through tube wells are an insurance
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against this unreliability. Poor quality of water is a common factor at the tail of most irrigation canal systems
and usually reflects poor infrastructure maintenance. These factors lead to inadequate irrigation services. As a
result, the drilling of private water wells usually proliferates and a high reliance on groundwater often follows
(Foster et al. 2010).
Key Advantages of Better Planned Conjunctive Use
The benefits that can build up from improving the planning and management of conjunctive use, for
existing and new agricultural irrigation areas, are outlined in Fig. 2.
Integrated numerical modeling of irrigation canal flows, aquifer response and appropriate groundwater use,
soil-water status and crop water-use are a great support to the evaluation of the potential benefits of varying
the spatial and temporal utilization of groundwater and distribution of surface water, and thus of improving
conjunctive use efficiency and sustainability for agri-tourism purposes.
The most significant advantage, however, is that agricultural production can be amplified extensively
without compromising groundwater use and sustainability.
Adequately organized, planned and managed conjunctive use efforts offers the ability of being in control of
groundwater availability and yields and seasonal variation of shallow alluvial aquifer, and the different
engineered groundwater table depths in the area of influence of conjunctive use supply schemes
In the most deterministic and planned conjunctive use schemes for agri-tourism oriented cultural irrigation,
abstraction of water from the respective sources can be optimized, not only with respect to surface water
resource availability and distribution but also with respect to reducing evaporation water losses from the
surface water storage reservoirs or minimizing the actual costs of energy for irrigation.
In cases where there exist alluvial plains downstream of major urban areas, large quantities of specifically
partially-treated wastewater are available for agricultural irrigation for purposes of agri-tourism
development. .
Potential Benefits of Conjunctive Water Use for Agri-tourism Development in Developing Nations
The figure below illustrates a range of aspects illustrating benefits of conjunctive use of groundwater and
surface water that for developing nations.
Figure 2: Range of potential benefits of conjunctive Water Use for Agri-Tourism Development in Developing
Nations (Adopted from World Bank, 2010)
S
ummary of Significant Aspects of Conjunctive Water Use Planning
Various areas have been considered significance and appropriate for investment for the agri-tourism concept and
they involve the following conditions:
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1. Reconfiguring Surface Irrigation Projects.
For nations with initial irrigation projects, several surface irrigation projects that were earlier designed
were approached with outmoded conjectures about cropping patterns and hydraulic infrastructure. Hence, re-
configuring the main system, rationalizing the operating rules and practices, and training system managers to
operate the modernized system in a conjunctive management mode offers a major investment opportunity,
especially for agri-tourism development.
2. Groundwater recharge to support intensive groundwater irrigation and agri-tourism development.
The strengthening of well irrigation in regions where rainfall precipitation is high remains a significant
source of groundwater recharge. Local communities and governments should resort to constructing local water
harvesting and recharge structures on a massive scale with the principal objective of increasing groundwater
availability for improved drinking-water security, drought proofing, and protecting rural livelihoods and agri-
tourism development.
3. Conjunctive use with relatively poor-quality water
As seen in a previous study, various human activities generally contribute to undesirable hygiene and
sanitation condition surface water and groundwater and this can adequately be dealt with through policy
formulation and planning. (Okungu, et al, 2014). However, intricacies and costs involved in disposing of
wastewater often present new opportunities for conjunctive use, especially for agriculture which is meant for
tourism attraction. Emergent wastewater use in peri-urban agriculture in cities around the world is a case in
point. Peri-urban farmers to use urban wastewater and groundwater conjunctively for irrigation (Buechler and
Devi 2003).
4. Conjunctive use with relatively saline groundwater.
In regions with permanent or prime salinity, conjunctive use of surface and groundwater exhibits
exclusive challenges and prospects. In such places the aim of conjunctive management is to uphold both water
and salt balances. In this situation, great control and precision should be enhanced in water supply to different
parts of supply areas so as to sustain an optimal ratio of fresh and saline water for irrigation for agriculture and
tourism satisfaction.
5. Conjunctive management opportunities in urban set ups.
Rapid urbanization in several parts of the world have yielded fresh intimidation for peri-urban
agriculture, thus agri-tourism faces eminent hindrance of growth or development. However, conjunctive
management of rainfall, surface water, and groundwater creates new opportunities to meet these threats.
Overcoming the Main Impediments to Planned Conjunctive Use
Though agri-tourism provides a platform for local farmers to acquire alternative tangible and intangible
income benefits, protect rural landscapes and agricultural lands and educate the population about food
production and environmental protection, there are a number of pitfall that are worth noting. For that matter the
most common impediments to the full development of conjunctive use of water for agri-tourism development
and also for urban water supply in the developing world include the following:
Frequently split responsibility for surface water and groundwater management between local government,
municipal authorities, and sometimes even involving national government, resulting in failure to identify
and to engineer opportunities for planned conjunctive use
Lack of sound and intelligible information about conjunctive use opportunities, which can be
Communicated to politicians and the general public, because of the absence of an ‘information and
communication unit’ at the relevant level of local water resource agencies
Urban water-service utilities are often politically or institutionally constrained from putting forward the
development and protection of urban well fields in favorable areas, located outside the city’s municipal
limits.
Urban water engineers often tend to look only for operationally-simple set-ups, such as a major surface
water-source and large treatment works, rather than more secure and robust conjunctive use solutions and
do not adequately appreciate the benefits which rational development of groundwater resources offers
Inadequate understanding of the extent of private in-situ self-supply with groundwater from shallow
aquifers, its benefits and its risks.
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Summary of Proposed Policy and Institutional Issues for Developing Nations
i. A basin perspective for conjunctive management of water use for agri-tourism
The benefits accrued from conjunctive water use can be enhanced by planning and managing water
resources at the catchment levels. Agri-tourism can be sustained anywhere in the world and this can be achieved
if the river basin becomes part of the water and land management unit.
ii. Reform of water resources management institutions.
The fragmented structure of water sector institutions and players contribute to the bottlenecks to
conjunctive planning and management of water. This arises because of the duplication of roles and confusions in
the various policy structures. An inter-departmental coordination unit should be initiated for the respective
sources, which etail tourism or ecotourism, irrigation, groundwater, and energy supply for groundwater pumping
by an electricity utility.
iii. Monitoring of groundwater and surface water infrastructure
A good number developing countries have had poor monitoring of their infrastructure. This precludes
spatially coordinated use of groundwater and surface water that is critical in a certain saline environment. A
priority should, therefore, be set with an aim of improving the monitoring of groundwater behavior and use
patterns in the conjunctive management domain (Agricultural & Rural Development, 2006).
iv. Adoption of public-private partnership
Public-Private partnership model of asset planning, development and management should be adopted
for surface irrigation systems, public tubewells so as to stop water logging and secondary salinization due to
surface irrigation. This would ensure adequacy and sustainability of agri-tourism and other water uses without
the much feared water scarcity.
v. Rehabilitation and augmentation.
Where groundwater levels are shallow, soils are saline but still favorable, soils are coarse rather than
fine, and canal seepage is abundant, it is important to consider reshaping the hydraulic infrastructure.
III. Conclusion
In conclusion, for developing countries, conjunctive use should be planned and executed for purposes
of enhancing agri-tourism development. Additionally the hindrances to planned conjunctive use need to be deal
with by national water resource agencies that closely handle local or county agriculture and tourism issues and
the corresponding water utility, and in some cases even with the national water resource agency.
Systematic and realistic studies need to be undertaken of technically sound and administratively
reasonable options for fully-integrated conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water that would be in the
long-term interest of urban water-supply security and agri-tourism development. In so doing an important
corollary that must be addressed concomitantly is making best use of the growing wastewater resource being
generated from urban areas, which should be integrated as part of overall water resource planning for
conjunctive use in urban water supply.
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