A systematic literature review was undertaken to analyze the effects of climate change concerning the forests in the Mediterranean region as it is a climate and a global hot spot of biological diversity and the richest biodiversity region in Europe. Climate change threatens several eco-systems (e.g. forests) with ecological and socioeconomic importance. It is noteworthy that all warming scenarios in the Mediterranean predict an increase of drought and heat events, and a reduction in precipitation within the next hundred years in the Mediterranean basin with im-portant consequences in local vegetation communities. Forests can therefore be used as a tool in developing so-lutions to the problem of climate change. Nowadays, is considered necessary firstly to continue monitoring and research concerning climate change patterns and impacts on regional scales and secondly to implement manage-ment strategies in order to preserve Mediterranean habi-tats.
The document assesses the impacts of climate change on the natural and cultural heritage in Ohrid region, Macedonia. It finds that climate change is already causing higher temperatures, disrupted rainfall, and rising lake levels in the region. This is threatening vulnerable species and ecosystems like oak forests and endemic trout. Cultural sites are also at risk, as higher temperatures and more extreme weather can lead to physical, chemical, and biological degradation of buildings and archaeological materials, especially Byzantine churches and underwater archaeological sites. The region's cultural and natural heritage is uniquely intertwined and highly vulnerable to climate change impacts. Adaptation measures are urgently needed to protect this area.
This document summarizes key findings from the IPCC's Fifth Assessment Report regarding impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability related to climate change. It finds that climate change is already affecting many natural and human systems, with impacts including sea level rise, more extreme weather events, shifting wildlife populations, and negative impacts on crop yields. These changes are exacerbating vulnerabilities, especially for marginalized people. The document outlines principles for effective adaptation, such as prioritizing local approaches and traditional knowledge, and emphasizes that greater climate change will increase risks and limits to adaptation. It stresses that transforming systems through climate-resilient development can help mitigate and adapt to climate impacts.
This document discusses the vulnerability of India's coastal zones to climate change. It notes that coastal zones are important regions for India, containing major cities and over a third of the population, but are vulnerable to sea level rise, cyclones, and changes in temperature and precipitation from climate change. Vulnerability is defined as the degree to which a system is impacted by or resilient to climate hazards, and is determined by exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. The document outlines how these factors contribute to India's coastal vulnerability and the socioeconomic impacts the country may face, such as slowed economic growth and increased food insecurity.
Modelling climate change impacts on nutrients and primary production in coast...Marco Pesce
The document describes an integrated modelling approach used to project the impacts of climate change on nutrient loadings and phytoplankton communities in coastal waters. The approach combines climate models, a hydrological model, and an ecological model. Climate models project increases in winter precipitation and summer temperatures. The hydrological model shows increases in winter nutrient loads and decreases in summer. The ecological model then projects changes in nutrient concentrations, phytoplankton biomass, and species composition in the coastal waters.
This document discusses the impacts of climate change on soil carbon dynamics. It begins with definitions of key terms like climate change and climatic extremes. It then outlines the different global carbon pools, with soils containing the third largest pool. The document discusses how climate change can impact the quantity and quality of soil organic carbon through changes in temperature, CO2, precipitation patterns, and climate extremes. It also examines potential carbon losses from soils under different climate change scenarios and considers approaches to mitigate these impacts through improved agricultural and land management practices.
This document summarizes a study that quantifies expected hydrological responses in the Aral Sea Drainage Basin in Central Asia to projections of climate change from 20 general circulation models. The study aims to investigate how uncertainties in future climate change interact with the effects of historic human redistributions of water for irrigation. Results show that errors in single model temperature and precipitation projections can significantly influence projected river runoff trends. However, multi-model ensemble means have relatively small influence on trends. Projected climate change will considerably increase net water loss through evapotranspiration. Maintained irrigation practices will further amplify this effect and likely lead to near-total river runoff depletion with risk of ecological impacts downstream.
Climate change is negatively impacting wetlands and the birds that depend on them for habitat. [1] Wetlands are becoming degraded due to changes in precipitation and temperature. [2] Birds use wetlands for breeding and rely on their physical and biological attributes, but climate change is altering these habitats. [3] A case study from Nepal found that temperatures have increased 0.41°C per decade and precipitation has become more variable, negatively impacting wetland birds through changes to their food availability, water resources, living space, and increased invasive species.
The document assesses the impacts of climate change on the natural and cultural heritage in Ohrid region, Macedonia. It finds that climate change is already causing higher temperatures, disrupted rainfall, and rising lake levels in the region. This is threatening vulnerable species and ecosystems like oak forests and endemic trout. Cultural sites are also at risk, as higher temperatures and more extreme weather can lead to physical, chemical, and biological degradation of buildings and archaeological materials, especially Byzantine churches and underwater archaeological sites. The region's cultural and natural heritage is uniquely intertwined and highly vulnerable to climate change impacts. Adaptation measures are urgently needed to protect this area.
This document summarizes key findings from the IPCC's Fifth Assessment Report regarding impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability related to climate change. It finds that climate change is already affecting many natural and human systems, with impacts including sea level rise, more extreme weather events, shifting wildlife populations, and negative impacts on crop yields. These changes are exacerbating vulnerabilities, especially for marginalized people. The document outlines principles for effective adaptation, such as prioritizing local approaches and traditional knowledge, and emphasizes that greater climate change will increase risks and limits to adaptation. It stresses that transforming systems through climate-resilient development can help mitigate and adapt to climate impacts.
This document discusses the vulnerability of India's coastal zones to climate change. It notes that coastal zones are important regions for India, containing major cities and over a third of the population, but are vulnerable to sea level rise, cyclones, and changes in temperature and precipitation from climate change. Vulnerability is defined as the degree to which a system is impacted by or resilient to climate hazards, and is determined by exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. The document outlines how these factors contribute to India's coastal vulnerability and the socioeconomic impacts the country may face, such as slowed economic growth and increased food insecurity.
Modelling climate change impacts on nutrients and primary production in coast...Marco Pesce
The document describes an integrated modelling approach used to project the impacts of climate change on nutrient loadings and phytoplankton communities in coastal waters. The approach combines climate models, a hydrological model, and an ecological model. Climate models project increases in winter precipitation and summer temperatures. The hydrological model shows increases in winter nutrient loads and decreases in summer. The ecological model then projects changes in nutrient concentrations, phytoplankton biomass, and species composition in the coastal waters.
This document discusses the impacts of climate change on soil carbon dynamics. It begins with definitions of key terms like climate change and climatic extremes. It then outlines the different global carbon pools, with soils containing the third largest pool. The document discusses how climate change can impact the quantity and quality of soil organic carbon through changes in temperature, CO2, precipitation patterns, and climate extremes. It also examines potential carbon losses from soils under different climate change scenarios and considers approaches to mitigate these impacts through improved agricultural and land management practices.
This document summarizes a study that quantifies expected hydrological responses in the Aral Sea Drainage Basin in Central Asia to projections of climate change from 20 general circulation models. The study aims to investigate how uncertainties in future climate change interact with the effects of historic human redistributions of water for irrigation. Results show that errors in single model temperature and precipitation projections can significantly influence projected river runoff trends. However, multi-model ensemble means have relatively small influence on trends. Projected climate change will considerably increase net water loss through evapotranspiration. Maintained irrigation practices will further amplify this effect and likely lead to near-total river runoff depletion with risk of ecological impacts downstream.
Climate change is negatively impacting wetlands and the birds that depend on them for habitat. [1] Wetlands are becoming degraded due to changes in precipitation and temperature. [2] Birds use wetlands for breeding and rely on their physical and biological attributes, but climate change is altering these habitats. [3] A case study from Nepal found that temperatures have increased 0.41°C per decade and precipitation has become more variable, negatively impacting wetland birds through changes to their food availability, water resources, living space, and increased invasive species.
1) The study examined the interactive effects of livestock grazing and climate change on water temperatures in three high-elevation meadow streams in the Golden Trout Wilderness that are habitat for California golden trout.
2) By comparing areas with and without cattle grazing, the study found that the removal of riparian vegetation by livestock resulted in less stream shading and higher maximum water temperatures.
3) Comparisons among the three meadow streams, which had different grazing management histories, also showed that water temperatures were cooler in the areas where cattle had been excluded long-term.
Impact of climate change on soil physical propertiesDK27497
This document discusses the impact of climate change on soil physical properties. It outlines several key soil physical properties like texture, structure, density, and temperature. It then explains how climate change can negatively impact these properties through higher temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and increased CO2 levels. Specifically, it describes how properties like porosity, infiltration rate, bulk density, and soil moisture content are altered. The document concludes that careful soil management practices are needed to adapt to these changes from climate change and minimize degradation.
Climate like any other physical phenomena it is dynamic and not static.
In every part of the world one year, one decade or one century is different than the other.
The change does not only have academic important but its effects in all the forms of life.
Plants, animals, human beings change with changes of climate.
In general, all living species thrive under definite and limit conditions and any great deviation from that will leads to destruction and death of the species.
Ecology: Scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environments which includes Biotic Factors: (Living organisms) , Abiotic Factors: (Nonliving physical and chemical conditions of an environment).
What are the levels of the Ecology?
Ecology has Five Levels.
Individual organism: Single organism in an environment
Populations: Group of individual organisms of same species living in the same area
Communities: All of the organisms that inhabit a particular area make up a community, like coral reef and other organisms live around in the reef
Ecosystems: An ecosystem includes both the biotic and abiotic factors of an area
Biosphere:
Sum of all of Earth's ecosystems, it is an envelope of air, land, and water supporting all living things on Earth. It consists of both the atmosphere and ocean.
Ecologists investigate global issues in the biosphere, including climate change and its effect on living things
The effects have been most dramatic at high latitudes, where multiple processes contribute to decreased surface reflectivity
Changes in temperature are causing species to shift their natural ranges; however, those are unable to move in line with changing temperatures are being put at risk.
Climate change is causing rising global temperatures, sea levels, and extreme weather events. Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere have increased significantly since the pre-industrial era due to human activities like burning fossil fuels. Soil properties and processes are affected by climate change factors like increased CO2, temperature changes, and altered precipitation patterns. This can impact soil aggregation, porosity, moisture, and microbial activity in both positive and negative ways depending on the specific conditions. Monitoring soil indicators is important for understanding and adapting to climate change impacts on soils and agricultural systems.
Land use-cover-trends-climate-variability-nexus-in-the-njoro-river-catchmentoircjournals
Anthropogenic activities have consequences on the land use/cover trends in the watershed and subsequently on the hydrological characteristics of rivers through intertwine of climate variability. The interplay between land use changes and climate variability are seen as contributory causes of catchment degradation in Kenya. The land use/cover changes increase impervious ground surfaces, decrease infiltration rate and increase runoff rate thereby affecting the hydrological characteristics of rivers. This study considers the interactions between climate variability and land use/cover changes in the river Njoro catchment in Kenya. The River Njoro drains into the lake Nakuru basin one of the Great Rift Valley Lakes in Kenya. The objectives of the study were: To evaluate the land-use and land cover patterns and changes in Njoro River catchment between 1996 and 2016, analyze the temperature and rainfall variations between 1996 and 2016 and compare the land use/cover changes with the variation in the rainfall and temperature. Landsat images and secondary data on water quality parameters were used in this study. The study showed that there was significant variation in rainfall and temperature trends in the Njoro river catchment and therefore the dynamics of land use/land cover in the river Njoro would be more attributed to anthropogenic activities than climate variability.
The document discusses the factors that cause climate change, including both natural factors and anthropogenic (human-caused) factors. It provides details on various natural factors such as volcanic eruptions, ocean currents, and solar variations. It also discusses several anthropogenic factors like deforestation, burning fossil fuels, landfills, overpopulation, mining, fertilizer use, and emissions of harmful gases. The document then discusses climate extreme events and argues that evidence shows these events are increasing in frequency and intensity due to climate change. Finally, it discusses sea level rise and the drivers of climate change according to the IPCC, including concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols, physical processes in Earth's climate system, and both natural
impactos del cambio climatico en ecosistemas costerosXin San
Anthropogenically induced global climate change has profound implications for marine
ecosystems and the economic and social systems that depend upon them. The
relationship between temperature and individual performance is reasonably well
understood, and much climate-related research has focused on potential shifts in
distribution and abundance driven directly by temperature. However, recent work has
revealed that both abiotic changes and biological responses in the ocean will be
substantially more complex. For example, changes in ocean chemistry may be more
important than changes in temperature for the performance and survival of many
organisms. Ocean circulation, which drives larval transport, will also change, with
important consequences for population dynamics. Furthermore, climatic impacts on one
or a few leverage species may result in sweeping community-level changes. Finally,
synergistic effects between climate and other anthropogenic variables, particularly fishing
pressure, will likely exacerbate climate-induced changes. Efforts to manage and conserve
living marine systems in the face of climate change will require improvements to the
existing predictive framework. Key directions for future research include identifying key
demographic transitions that influence population dynamics, predicting changes in the
community-level impacts of ecologically dominant species, incorporating populations
ability to evolve (adapt), and understanding the scales over which climate will change and
living systems will respond.
Growing Season Extension & its Impact on Terrestrial Carbon; Gardening Guidebook www.scribd.com/doc/239851313, For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/239851214 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/239851079 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/239851159 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/239851159 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/239851348 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/239850440 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/239850233 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools, Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/23985111 ~
An overview of climate change effects potentially impacting the Southeastern United States. Provides references, image credits, and supporting citations in "slide notes" view. For more climate change information, visit the National Biological Information Infrastructure (NBII), Southeast Information Node Climate Change Web site at http://go.usa.gov/OIs
Ecology is the scientific study of the relationship between living organisms and their environment. It includes the study of plant and animal populations, communities, and ecosystems. Some key ecological problems are overuse of pesticides, climate change, urban development, global warming, genetically modified foods, toxic waste, and issues around renewable energy and recycling.
This document summarizes the results of modeling exercises that simulate the impact of climate change on two types of surface aquifers: lakes and rivers. For lakes, it focuses on the impact of global warming on the thermal structure of two Italian lakes, Lake Como and Lake Pusiano, using a hydrodynamic model. The model projects an increase in average yearly lake temperature of 0.04°C per year from 1970-2000 and 0.03°C per year from 2001-2050 according to IPCC climate change scenarios. These increases are expected to reduce mixing between lake layers and impact phytoplankton growth and cyanobacteria blooms. For rivers, it describes a methodology using models to estimate changes in nutrient loads in
Adaptation of forest management to climate change in the Asia Pacific RegionCIFOR-ICRAF
This presentation was delivered at the third Asia-Pacific Forestry Week 2016, in Clark Freeport Zone, Philippines.
The five sub-thematic streams at APFW 2016 included:
Pathways to prosperity: Future trade and markets
Tackling climate change: challenges and opportunities
Serving society: forestry and people
New institutions, new governance
Our green future: green investment and growing our natural assets
The document summarizes a study analyzing water resources availability and demand in the Mahanadi River Basin in India under projected climate change conditions from 2000 to 2100. The key findings are:
1) A hydrological model is used to project increases in peak runoff during wet months and decreases in average runoff during dry months over the study period, indicating increasing flood risk and drought.
2) Water demand is projected to increase until 2050 due to population growth, then decrease as population growth slows.
3) Some sub-catchments are projected to experience water stress by 2100 based on decreasing availability and demand projections.
This document provides a scientific outcome from a workshop on biodiversity and climate change co-sponsored by IPBES and IPCC. It contains 7 sections that discuss the interdependence of climate and biodiversity, how they are connected to human futures, and how addressing their decline can support good quality of life. The key points are:
1) Climate and biodiversity are inextricably linked - each influences the other and stable climate and biodiversity are foundations for human well-being.
2) Human activities like land use change and fossil fuel use have altered climate and caused biodiversity loss, compromising quality of life.
3) Strategies to conserve biodiversity must consider climate impacts and vice versa to
The document discusses the course objectives, principles, aims, and scope of agroclimatology. The course aims to explain climatic conditions and their relationship to agriculture. Some key principles discussed are how solar radiation influences temperature, wind is caused by pressure differences, and climatic zones influence plant and animal life. The goals of climatology are to describe climate patterns and variations, understand climate dynamics, and model future climate changes. Climatology examines climate influences on human activities and land use at various spatial scales.
This seminar presentation discusses the impact of climate change on biodiversity. It begins with an overview of how to manage Earth's temperature through solar energy and greenhouse gases. It then examines worldwide carbon emissions over time and explains the greenhouse effect. The values of biodiversity are outlined, and the presentation shows the impact of climate change on forests visible from space. A case study examines the effect of climate change on mountain pine beetles. The main impacts of climate change discussed are species extinction, effects on forests, water, polar regions and wildlife. The presentation concludes that temperatures will continue to rise and growing seasons will lengthen.
Biodiversity in a changing climate: Ecosystem based adaptation and mitigation...UNDP Eurasia
This document discusses the connections between biodiversity and climate change. Climate change is a major driver of biodiversity loss through its impacts on ecosystems like changes in structure and function. Protected areas play an important role in both climate change mitigation and adaptation by storing carbon, capturing more through restoration, and maintaining ecosystem integrity and services. Opportunities exist for governments to increase protected areas' contributions to climate strategies through landscape approaches and expanding networks in high carbon/deforestation areas. Case studies from Belarus show peatland restoration providing mitigation, biodiversity, and economic benefits.
This document summarizes a study that investigates the effects of irrigation on hydro-climatic change through a literature review and comparative analysis of two river basins. The study compares the Aral Sea region in Central Asia, where irrigation has led to severe surface water changes, to the Mahanadi River Basin in India, which drains into the ocean and is less dependent on local runoff. The results show that irrigation may drive greater changes to surface temperature, evapotranspiration, and heat fluxes in basins with small relative runoff changes compared to basins with more severe surface water changes. Accurately assessing interconnected hydrological changes requires accounting for actual water balance constraints.
This document discusses the relationships between water, climate, and energy. It makes three key points:
1) Water, climate, and energy are inextricably linked - water is used to generate energy through methods like hydropower, and energy is used to transport and treat water.
2) Climate change impacts water resources through changes in precipitation and evaporation patterns, which can exacerbate water scarcity. It also acts to intensify competition over water and energy sources.
3) Solving the interconnected challenges of water, energy, and climate sustainability will require expanded research, innovative technologies, shared responsibility, and integrated policy frameworks across sectors and geographical regions.
Climate change is one of the primary factors contributing to the loss of biodiversity worldwide. The purpose of this review paper was to give serious thought about the present and future impacts of climate change on biodiversity, even though we are not aware of its synergistic effects on biological populations. In order to fully understand the biota's reactions to these climatic
changes, we also concentrated on how these changes impact their phenology and physiology. This review article's subjects are
covered in a non-random order to make it easier for readers to understand the connections between biodiversity and climate
change. We also discussed about how 1.1°C of global warming brought about by human activity has altered the Earth's climate
in ways never seen before and negatively impacted human health. We covered how to safeguard our biota by implementing practical conservation strategies at the end of this review article in order to reduce the effects of climate change on it. We hope that one day, because research on climate change and biodiversity protection is interdisciplinary and spans many different scientific areas, we will be able to address all these concerns and preserve our biota from their terrible consequences.
1) The study examined the interactive effects of livestock grazing and climate change on water temperatures in three high-elevation meadow streams in the Golden Trout Wilderness that are habitat for California golden trout.
2) By comparing areas with and without cattle grazing, the study found that the removal of riparian vegetation by livestock resulted in less stream shading and higher maximum water temperatures.
3) Comparisons among the three meadow streams, which had different grazing management histories, also showed that water temperatures were cooler in the areas where cattle had been excluded long-term.
Impact of climate change on soil physical propertiesDK27497
This document discusses the impact of climate change on soil physical properties. It outlines several key soil physical properties like texture, structure, density, and temperature. It then explains how climate change can negatively impact these properties through higher temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and increased CO2 levels. Specifically, it describes how properties like porosity, infiltration rate, bulk density, and soil moisture content are altered. The document concludes that careful soil management practices are needed to adapt to these changes from climate change and minimize degradation.
Climate like any other physical phenomena it is dynamic and not static.
In every part of the world one year, one decade or one century is different than the other.
The change does not only have academic important but its effects in all the forms of life.
Plants, animals, human beings change with changes of climate.
In general, all living species thrive under definite and limit conditions and any great deviation from that will leads to destruction and death of the species.
Ecology: Scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environments which includes Biotic Factors: (Living organisms) , Abiotic Factors: (Nonliving physical and chemical conditions of an environment).
What are the levels of the Ecology?
Ecology has Five Levels.
Individual organism: Single organism in an environment
Populations: Group of individual organisms of same species living in the same area
Communities: All of the organisms that inhabit a particular area make up a community, like coral reef and other organisms live around in the reef
Ecosystems: An ecosystem includes both the biotic and abiotic factors of an area
Biosphere:
Sum of all of Earth's ecosystems, it is an envelope of air, land, and water supporting all living things on Earth. It consists of both the atmosphere and ocean.
Ecologists investigate global issues in the biosphere, including climate change and its effect on living things
The effects have been most dramatic at high latitudes, where multiple processes contribute to decreased surface reflectivity
Changes in temperature are causing species to shift their natural ranges; however, those are unable to move in line with changing temperatures are being put at risk.
Climate change is causing rising global temperatures, sea levels, and extreme weather events. Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere have increased significantly since the pre-industrial era due to human activities like burning fossil fuels. Soil properties and processes are affected by climate change factors like increased CO2, temperature changes, and altered precipitation patterns. This can impact soil aggregation, porosity, moisture, and microbial activity in both positive and negative ways depending on the specific conditions. Monitoring soil indicators is important for understanding and adapting to climate change impacts on soils and agricultural systems.
Land use-cover-trends-climate-variability-nexus-in-the-njoro-river-catchmentoircjournals
Anthropogenic activities have consequences on the land use/cover trends in the watershed and subsequently on the hydrological characteristics of rivers through intertwine of climate variability. The interplay between land use changes and climate variability are seen as contributory causes of catchment degradation in Kenya. The land use/cover changes increase impervious ground surfaces, decrease infiltration rate and increase runoff rate thereby affecting the hydrological characteristics of rivers. This study considers the interactions between climate variability and land use/cover changes in the river Njoro catchment in Kenya. The River Njoro drains into the lake Nakuru basin one of the Great Rift Valley Lakes in Kenya. The objectives of the study were: To evaluate the land-use and land cover patterns and changes in Njoro River catchment between 1996 and 2016, analyze the temperature and rainfall variations between 1996 and 2016 and compare the land use/cover changes with the variation in the rainfall and temperature. Landsat images and secondary data on water quality parameters were used in this study. The study showed that there was significant variation in rainfall and temperature trends in the Njoro river catchment and therefore the dynamics of land use/land cover in the river Njoro would be more attributed to anthropogenic activities than climate variability.
The document discusses the factors that cause climate change, including both natural factors and anthropogenic (human-caused) factors. It provides details on various natural factors such as volcanic eruptions, ocean currents, and solar variations. It also discusses several anthropogenic factors like deforestation, burning fossil fuels, landfills, overpopulation, mining, fertilizer use, and emissions of harmful gases. The document then discusses climate extreme events and argues that evidence shows these events are increasing in frequency and intensity due to climate change. Finally, it discusses sea level rise and the drivers of climate change according to the IPCC, including concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols, physical processes in Earth's climate system, and both natural
impactos del cambio climatico en ecosistemas costerosXin San
Anthropogenically induced global climate change has profound implications for marine
ecosystems and the economic and social systems that depend upon them. The
relationship between temperature and individual performance is reasonably well
understood, and much climate-related research has focused on potential shifts in
distribution and abundance driven directly by temperature. However, recent work has
revealed that both abiotic changes and biological responses in the ocean will be
substantially more complex. For example, changes in ocean chemistry may be more
important than changes in temperature for the performance and survival of many
organisms. Ocean circulation, which drives larval transport, will also change, with
important consequences for population dynamics. Furthermore, climatic impacts on one
or a few leverage species may result in sweeping community-level changes. Finally,
synergistic effects between climate and other anthropogenic variables, particularly fishing
pressure, will likely exacerbate climate-induced changes. Efforts to manage and conserve
living marine systems in the face of climate change will require improvements to the
existing predictive framework. Key directions for future research include identifying key
demographic transitions that influence population dynamics, predicting changes in the
community-level impacts of ecologically dominant species, incorporating populations
ability to evolve (adapt), and understanding the scales over which climate will change and
living systems will respond.
Growing Season Extension & its Impact on Terrestrial Carbon; Gardening Guidebook www.scribd.com/doc/239851313, For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/239851214 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/239851079 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/239851159 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/239851159 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/239851348 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/239850440 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/239850233 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools, Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/23985111 ~
An overview of climate change effects potentially impacting the Southeastern United States. Provides references, image credits, and supporting citations in "slide notes" view. For more climate change information, visit the National Biological Information Infrastructure (NBII), Southeast Information Node Climate Change Web site at http://go.usa.gov/OIs
Ecology is the scientific study of the relationship between living organisms and their environment. It includes the study of plant and animal populations, communities, and ecosystems. Some key ecological problems are overuse of pesticides, climate change, urban development, global warming, genetically modified foods, toxic waste, and issues around renewable energy and recycling.
This document summarizes the results of modeling exercises that simulate the impact of climate change on two types of surface aquifers: lakes and rivers. For lakes, it focuses on the impact of global warming on the thermal structure of two Italian lakes, Lake Como and Lake Pusiano, using a hydrodynamic model. The model projects an increase in average yearly lake temperature of 0.04°C per year from 1970-2000 and 0.03°C per year from 2001-2050 according to IPCC climate change scenarios. These increases are expected to reduce mixing between lake layers and impact phytoplankton growth and cyanobacteria blooms. For rivers, it describes a methodology using models to estimate changes in nutrient loads in
Adaptation of forest management to climate change in the Asia Pacific RegionCIFOR-ICRAF
This presentation was delivered at the third Asia-Pacific Forestry Week 2016, in Clark Freeport Zone, Philippines.
The five sub-thematic streams at APFW 2016 included:
Pathways to prosperity: Future trade and markets
Tackling climate change: challenges and opportunities
Serving society: forestry and people
New institutions, new governance
Our green future: green investment and growing our natural assets
The document summarizes a study analyzing water resources availability and demand in the Mahanadi River Basin in India under projected climate change conditions from 2000 to 2100. The key findings are:
1) A hydrological model is used to project increases in peak runoff during wet months and decreases in average runoff during dry months over the study period, indicating increasing flood risk and drought.
2) Water demand is projected to increase until 2050 due to population growth, then decrease as population growth slows.
3) Some sub-catchments are projected to experience water stress by 2100 based on decreasing availability and demand projections.
This document provides a scientific outcome from a workshop on biodiversity and climate change co-sponsored by IPBES and IPCC. It contains 7 sections that discuss the interdependence of climate and biodiversity, how they are connected to human futures, and how addressing their decline can support good quality of life. The key points are:
1) Climate and biodiversity are inextricably linked - each influences the other and stable climate and biodiversity are foundations for human well-being.
2) Human activities like land use change and fossil fuel use have altered climate and caused biodiversity loss, compromising quality of life.
3) Strategies to conserve biodiversity must consider climate impacts and vice versa to
The document discusses the course objectives, principles, aims, and scope of agroclimatology. The course aims to explain climatic conditions and their relationship to agriculture. Some key principles discussed are how solar radiation influences temperature, wind is caused by pressure differences, and climatic zones influence plant and animal life. The goals of climatology are to describe climate patterns and variations, understand climate dynamics, and model future climate changes. Climatology examines climate influences on human activities and land use at various spatial scales.
This seminar presentation discusses the impact of climate change on biodiversity. It begins with an overview of how to manage Earth's temperature through solar energy and greenhouse gases. It then examines worldwide carbon emissions over time and explains the greenhouse effect. The values of biodiversity are outlined, and the presentation shows the impact of climate change on forests visible from space. A case study examines the effect of climate change on mountain pine beetles. The main impacts of climate change discussed are species extinction, effects on forests, water, polar regions and wildlife. The presentation concludes that temperatures will continue to rise and growing seasons will lengthen.
Biodiversity in a changing climate: Ecosystem based adaptation and mitigation...UNDP Eurasia
This document discusses the connections between biodiversity and climate change. Climate change is a major driver of biodiversity loss through its impacts on ecosystems like changes in structure and function. Protected areas play an important role in both climate change mitigation and adaptation by storing carbon, capturing more through restoration, and maintaining ecosystem integrity and services. Opportunities exist for governments to increase protected areas' contributions to climate strategies through landscape approaches and expanding networks in high carbon/deforestation areas. Case studies from Belarus show peatland restoration providing mitigation, biodiversity, and economic benefits.
This document summarizes a study that investigates the effects of irrigation on hydro-climatic change through a literature review and comparative analysis of two river basins. The study compares the Aral Sea region in Central Asia, where irrigation has led to severe surface water changes, to the Mahanadi River Basin in India, which drains into the ocean and is less dependent on local runoff. The results show that irrigation may drive greater changes to surface temperature, evapotranspiration, and heat fluxes in basins with small relative runoff changes compared to basins with more severe surface water changes. Accurately assessing interconnected hydrological changes requires accounting for actual water balance constraints.
This document discusses the relationships between water, climate, and energy. It makes three key points:
1) Water, climate, and energy are inextricably linked - water is used to generate energy through methods like hydropower, and energy is used to transport and treat water.
2) Climate change impacts water resources through changes in precipitation and evaporation patterns, which can exacerbate water scarcity. It also acts to intensify competition over water and energy sources.
3) Solving the interconnected challenges of water, energy, and climate sustainability will require expanded research, innovative technologies, shared responsibility, and integrated policy frameworks across sectors and geographical regions.
Climate change is one of the primary factors contributing to the loss of biodiversity worldwide. The purpose of this review paper was to give serious thought about the present and future impacts of climate change on biodiversity, even though we are not aware of its synergistic effects on biological populations. In order to fully understand the biota's reactions to these climatic
changes, we also concentrated on how these changes impact their phenology and physiology. This review article's subjects are
covered in a non-random order to make it easier for readers to understand the connections between biodiversity and climate
change. We also discussed about how 1.1°C of global warming brought about by human activity has altered the Earth's climate
in ways never seen before and negatively impacted human health. We covered how to safeguard our biota by implementing practical conservation strategies at the end of this review article in order to reduce the effects of climate change on it. We hope that one day, because research on climate change and biodiversity protection is interdisciplinary and spans many different scientific areas, we will be able to address all these concerns and preserve our biota from their terrible consequences.
This document provides an overview of the impacts of climate change on biodiversity based on a report from the Second Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group. It discusses observed and projected impacts including changes in species distributions, timing of life cycles, ecosystem composition and services. Climate change threatens biodiversity through increasing temperatures, altering carbon cycles and increasing extreme weather events. Risk assessment tools are needed to identify vulnerable species and ecosystems to prioritize adaptation activities. Economic valuation of ecosystem services and incentives should be considered to support adaptation and not negatively impact biodiversity conservation.
Natural ecosystems are one of our most precious resources, critical for sustaining life on the planet. The benefits humans derive from ecosystems are varied, from marketable products such as pharmaceuticals, to recreational opportunities such as camping, to ecosystems services such as erosion control and water purification. For many people, nature plays a powerful spiritual and aesthetic role in their lives, and many place a high value on the existence of wilderness and nature for its own sake. Despite the critical roles ecosystems play, these areas are increasingly threatened by the impacts of a growing human population through habitat destruction and air and water pollution. Added to these stresses comes a new threat — global climate change resulting from increased greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. “Ecosystems and Global Climate Change†is the fifth in a series of the Pew Center reports examining the potential impacts of climate change on the U.S. environment. It details the very real possibility that warming over this century will jeopardize the integrity of many of the terrestrial ecosystems on which we depend. Among the many key issues raised are With warming, the distribution of terrestrial ecosystems will change as plants and animals follow the shifting climate. The eastern United States will likely lose many of its deciduous forests as the climate zones shift northwards, while more mountainous regions, like portions of the West, will see species and ecosystems migrate up mountain slopes from lower elevations.Both the amount and rate of warming predicted represent a threat to our nation’s biodiversity. Certain species may face dwindling numbers and even extinction if they are unable to migrate fast enough to keep up with the changing climate. Likewise, as warming shrinks the zone of cold conditions in upper latitudes and on mountains, the future of species that depend on such climates will be in jeopardy.Climate change is likely to alter ecosystem composition and function — that is, which species make up an ecosystem and the way in which energy and materials flow through these systems. These modifications are bound to alter the amount and quantity of the various goods and services ecosystems provide.Ecosystems are inherently complex and difficult to model, and our ability to predict exactly how species and ecosystems will respond to a changing climate is limited. This uncertainty limits our ability to mitigate, minimize, or ameliorate the effects of climate change on terrestrial ecosystems. In order to maximize nature’s own potential to adapt to climate change, we must continue to support existing strategies to conserve biodiversity and protect natural ecosystems. Surendar Kumar "Ecosystems Adaptation to Global Warming" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-5 , August 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd50490.pdf Paper
Climate change; its effects on pakistanShahid Khan
The climate system is a complex, interactive system consisting of the atmosphere, land surface, snow and ice, oceans and other bodies of water, and living things.
This document summarizes the potential impacts of climate change on European forest ecosystems. It finds that forests will need to adapt to changes in both average climate conditions and increased climate variability/extreme weather events. The most significant impacts are expected to include increased drought risk and disturbance from pests, diseases and fires. Effects will vary regionally, with northern and western Europe potentially benefiting from higher temperatures and CO2 levels in the short-term, while southern and eastern Europe are expected to face more severe negative impacts like drought and productivity declines. The adaptive capacity of forests also varies by region and is most limited in Mediterranean areas.
Role of climate in crop productivity in salt affected soils.docxBhaskar Narjary
1) Climate factors like temperature, moisture, light, and CO2 concentration have significant impacts on crop growth and productivity. Higher temperatures can reduce crop duration and yields, while changes in moisture availability can stress crops.
2) Analysis of climate data for the Karnal district of Haryana, India from 1972-2010 showed increases in average maximum and minimum temperatures as well as shifts in rainfall patterns, with more rainfall occurring in September.
3) Climate modeling projections for Haryana indicate increases in average maximum temperatures of 1.3°C by mid-century and 4.2°C by late century, with minimum temperatures rising 2.1°C and 4.7°C respectively. Precipitation
IMPACT OF GLOBAL WARMING ON AQUATIC FLORA AND FAUNAMahendra Pal
A rise in temperature as small as 1° C could have important and rapid effects on the geographical distributions and mortality of some organisms. The more mobile species should be able to adjust their ranges over time, but less mobile and sedentary species may not.There are many factors that can cause a warming of our climate; for example, more energy from the sun, large natural events such as El Nino or an increased greenhouse effect. Rising temperatures can directly affect the metabolism, life cycle, and behaviour of marine species. For many species, temperature serves as a cue for reproduction. Clearly, changes in sea temperature could affect their successful breeding. The number of male and female offspring is determined by temperature for marine turtles, as well as some fish and copepods (tiny shrimp-like animals on which many other marine animals feed). Changing climate could therefore skew sex ratios and threaten population survival.
Global warming is causing the average temperature of the Earth to rise, resulting in climate change. Increased greenhouse gas emissions from human activities, like burning fossil fuels, are trapping more heat in the atmosphere. This document reviews several impacts of global warming on the environment, including effects on agriculture, water resources, temperature, and precipitation. Rising temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns are posing challenges for food production and water availability. Many regions are facing issues like water scarcity, drought, and degraded water quality. Climate change is also expected to spread diseases and damage ecosystems. Adaptation efforts are needed to help communities cope with the environmental changes caused by global warming.
Eco1.Do you think it is appropriate that the consumer bears part.docxjack60216
Eco
1.Do you think it is appropriate that the consumer bears part of the burden of pollution fees in the form of higher prices? Why or why not?
2.In the U.S., landowners have the mineral rights to all minerals that might be found under their property (e.g, oil and natural gas). In most European countries, the government, not the property owner, has the rights to any minerals found in the ground. Fracking occurs in several U.S. states, but remains unpopular in Europe. If national governments in other nations agreed to share the profits from fracking with the landowners on whose property the drilling takes place, how might that change attitudes toward the fracking process?
3.Do you think we are a throwaway society? Are your attitudes towards consumption of goods the same as your parents? Your grandparents? (Think of how goods have changed over the years.)
4.A few years ago we became aware that disposable diapers were a major item being put into U.S. landfills. Some communities discussed banning disposable diapers from their landfills. There were protests from parents groups whose members found disposable much more convenient than cloth diapers. Rationally evaluate this policy from both the community environmentalists and the parents groups’ viewpoints.
5.Should income in the U.S. be distributed equally? If not, should there be at least a greater degree of equality than we presently have? What are the advantages and disadvantages of greater equality?
6.Which do you feel is more effective in reducing poverty: government poverty programs or economic growth of a nation? How do private charities fit in? Are you an economic conservative or economic liberal when it comes to addressing poverty?
O R I G I N A L P A P E R
Wetlands and global climate change: the role of wetland
restoration in a changing world
Kevin L. Erwin
Received: 15 April 2008 / Accepted: 24 September 2008 / Published online: 7 November 2008
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008
Abstract Global climate change is recognized as a
threat to species survival and the health of natural
systems. Scientists worldwide are looking at the
ecological and hydrological impacts resulting from
climate change. Climate change will make future
efforts to restore and manage wetlands more com-
plex. Wetland systems are vulnerable to changes in
quantity and quality of their water supply, and it is
expected that climate change will have a pronounced
effect on wetlands through alterations in hydrological
regimes with great global variability. Wetland habitat
responses to climate change and the implications for
restoration will be realized differently on a regional
and mega-watershed level, making it important to
recognize that specific restoration and management
plans will require examination by habitat. Flood-
plains, mangroves, seagrasses, saltmarshes, arctic
wetlands, peatlands, freshwater marshes and forests
are very diverse habitats, with different str ...
Scenario of insect pest under climate change situation & future challenges in...AJAY KUMAR
Here is a description of the insect population in current insect population and there scenario change with time. Current insect scenario and future challenges in India.
- The burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which acts as a greenhouse gas and traps heat. This is the main human activity contributing to global climate change.
- As carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere increase due to fossil fuel burning, more heat gets trapped leading to a rise in average global temperatures, a phenomenon known as global warming.
- Climate change has both natural and human-caused factors. Natural causes include changes in the Earth's orbit and solar activity, while the dominant human cause is burning fossil fuels which releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
The document summarizes a study of long-term ecosystem changes along the coast of Israel using arboreal pollen analysis. Key findings include:
1) Forests were replaced by thorny shrub-steppe and then open-steppe around 4000-2900 years ago due to sea level rise and increased salinity.
2) A drought event linked to decreased precipitation occurred around 3200 years ago, allowing plants to recover as human agriculture declined temporarily.
3) Increased agriculture in recent decades has replaced woodlands further inland and contributed to renewed sea level rise over the past 50 years.
Climate change is causing various impacts in Pakistan such as increased temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns, melting glaciers, and more frequent extreme weather events. This is affecting many sectors of Pakistan's economy and environment such as agriculture, water resources, forestry, fisheries, coastal areas, and human health and livelihoods. Pakistan is highly vulnerable to these impacts due to its heavy reliance on climate-sensitive sectors like agriculture and geography with mountains, plains, and coastal areas facing different climate-related hazards. Adaptation and mitigation actions are needed to address climate change risks and reduce emissions.
Global Warming: Effect on Living Organisms, Causes and its SolutionsDr. Amarjeet Singh
In the present scenario many scientists, researchers
and environmentalists are expressing their deep concerns
about the overall changes. For continuous production of
Electricity Fossil and Fuels are being used. The burning of
these fuels produces gases like carbon dioxide, methane and
nitrous oxides which lead to global warming. The main cause
of global warming can be unsustainable human activities that
increase the accumulation of greenhouse gases. The hazard of
global warming is continuously causing major damage to the
Earth's environment. Most human beings are still unaware of
global warming and do not consider it to be a big problem in
the future. Living Organisms have to make efforts to
maintain health by recognizing and resolving abnormal
situations such as the presence of invading microorganisms.
Here we outline the effect on living organisms, causes and
how we can overcome it.
Agriculture, Climate Change and Carbon SequestrationGardening
The document discusses how climate change influences agriculture and how agriculture influences climate change. It states that the Earth's average temperature has increased 1.3 degrees Fahrenheit over the past century and is projected to increase by 3.2 to 7.2 degrees this century. These increases could lengthen growing seasons but also increase drought risks. The document then outlines how agricultural practices like fertilizer use and livestock emissions contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, but that carbon can also be sequestered in soils through certain farming techniques.
Methane in Coastal Blue Carbon EcosystemCIFOR-ICRAF
Presented by Judith A. Rosentreter
(Postdoctoral Researcher Centre for Coastal Biogeochemistry Southern Cross University, Lismore, Australia) on 25 September 2019 at Blue Carbon Regional Workshop, Merida, Yucatan.
The document discusses the impacts of climate change on agriculture in Nepal. It notes that global temperatures have increased by 0.8°C over the past century due to human activity. Climate change is predicted to cause rising temperatures, shifting climatic zones, and more extreme weather. This will lead to impacts like changing crop cycles, loss of native species, and decreased agricultural yields from droughts and floods. The document recommends ways for agriculture in Nepal to adapt, such as using resistant crops, water management strategies, and integrating livestock and forestry. It also stresses the need for policies, research, and community engagement to build adaptive capacity.
Similar to effects of climate change on vegetation in mediterranean forests (20)
Literature Review Basics and Understanding Reference Management.pptxDr Ramhari Poudyal
Three-day training on academic research focuses on analytical tools at United Technical College, supported by the University Grant Commission, Nepal. 24-26 May 2024
A review on techniques and modelling methodologies used for checking electrom...nooriasukmaningtyas
The proper function of the integrated circuit (IC) in an inhibiting electromagnetic environment has always been a serious concern throughout the decades of revolution in the world of electronics, from disjunct devices to today’s integrated circuit technology, where billions of transistors are combined on a single chip. The automotive industry and smart vehicles in particular, are confronting design issues such as being prone to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Electronic control devices calculate incorrect outputs because of EMI and sensors give misleading values which can prove fatal in case of automotives. In this paper, the authors have non exhaustively tried to review research work concerned with the investigation of EMI in ICs and prediction of this EMI using various modelling methodologies and measurement setups.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
We have compiled the most important slides from each speaker's presentation. This year’s compilation, available for free, captures the key insights and contributions shared during the DfMAy 2024 conference.
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024)ClaraZara1
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of on Machine Learning & Applications.
Adaptive synchronous sliding control for a robot manipulator based on neural ...IJECEIAES
Robot manipulators have become important equipment in production lines, medical fields, and transportation. Improving the quality of trajectory tracking for
robot hands is always an attractive topic in the research community. This is a
challenging problem because robot manipulators are complex nonlinear systems
and are often subject to fluctuations in loads and external disturbances. This
article proposes an adaptive synchronous sliding control scheme to improve trajectory tracking performance for a robot manipulator. The proposed controller
ensures that the positions of the joints track the desired trajectory, synchronize
the errors, and significantly reduces chattering. First, the synchronous tracking
errors and synchronous sliding surfaces are presented. Second, the synchronous
tracking error dynamics are determined. Third, a robust adaptive control law is
designed,the unknown components of the model are estimated online by the neural network, and the parameters of the switching elements are selected by fuzzy
logic. The built algorithm ensures that the tracking and approximation errors
are ultimately uniformly bounded (UUB). Finally, the effectiveness of the constructed algorithm is demonstrated through simulation and experimental results.
Simulation and experimental results show that the proposed controller is effective with small synchronous tracking errors, and the chattering phenomenon is
significantly reduced.
RAT: Retrieval Augmented Thoughts Elicit Context-Aware Reasoning in Long-Hori...
effects of climate change on vegetation in mediterranean forests
1. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB) Vol-2, Issue-1, Jan-Feb- 2017
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Effects of Climate Change on Vegetation in
Mediterranean Forests: A review
A.D. Solomou*
, N.D. Proutsos, G. Karetsos, K. Tsagari
Hellenic Agricultural Organization "DEMETER", Institute of Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems,
N. Chlorou 1, Ilisia, 11528, Athens, Greece.
Abstract— A systematic literature review was undertaken
to analyze the effects of climate change concerning the
forests in the Mediterranean region as it is a climate and a
global hot spot of biological diversity and the richest bio-
diversity region in Europe. Climate change threatens sev-
eral ecosystems (e.g. forests) with ecological and socioec-
onomic importance. It is noteworthy that all warming sce-
narios in the Mediterranean predict an increase of drought
and heat events, and a reduction in precipitation within the
next hundred years in the Mediterranean basin with im-
portant consequences in local vegetation communities.
Forests can therefore be used as a tool in developing solu-
tions to the problem of climate change. Nowadays, is con-
sidered necessary firstly to continue monitoring and re-
search concerning climate change patterns and impacts on
regional scales and secondly to implement management
strategies in order to preserve Mediterranean habitats.
Keywords—Forest, vegetation, management, climate
change, adaptation.
I. INTRODUCTION
Mediterranean is considered as global biodiversity hotspot
[1,2]. Expanding between temperate-rainy (South Europe)
and arid regions (Africa), constitutes essentially, a transi-
tional zone, werevarious types of ecosystems and species
co-exist, but in a delicate balance [3].
Climate change effects have already begun to be felt
throughout the Mediterranean. Prolonged periods of
drought, frequent and severe storms, flooding, increased
extreme heat events and more mega-fires are a testimony
to this change. The rapid and acute changes in climatic
conditions within the next 100 years is expected to pro-
duce an important impact on the Mediterranean forests [4].
Mediterranean ecosystems are characterized by contrasting
plant functional types competing for water [5]andare sensi-
tive to warming and alsotochanges in water availability
[6]. They have undergone numerous climatic changes in
the past, responding with various ways (tolerance to envi-
ronmental changes as a result of phenotypic plasticity of
certain species, adaptation by changing physiological pro-
cedures, exploitation of genotypes, immigrationetc) [7].
Further temperature increase and water availability reduc-
tion is expected to cause Mediterranean biodiversity loss in
the future [8] and have notable impacts on natural vegeta-
tion.
Hence, the aim of the present activated review is to present
comprehensive information about the effects of climate
change concerning the forestsin the Mediterranean region,
which has been identified as "climate change hot
spot"[9,10].
II. METHODOLOGY
In order to review and consolidate existing research on the
climate change effects on Mediterranean Forest vegetation,
a literature search was conducted using Scopus, Web of
Science and Google scholar. A systematic methodology
was implemented in order to ensure that a rigorous and
repeatable method was applied to each synthetic of the
effects of climatic change on vegetation in Mediterranean
Forests. The methodology consisted of two stages: (i) the
generation of keywords and (ii) a systematic search [11].
III. RESULTS
Environmental conditions play an important role in defin-
ing the function and distribution of vegetation, in relation
with other factors. Changes in long term environmental
conditions that can be collectively coined climate change
have significant effects on vegetation community struc-
ture, composition and distribution pattern in the future
[12].
Mediterranean regions are passing climate regions where it
has been presumed that climatic changes may have the
greatest impacts. Mediterranean regions are also predicted
to have minutely intense feedbacks from the earth to the
atmosphere [13].
Climate changes
Climate constitutes a constantly changing system due to
both anthropogenic and natural factors. Recent past rec-
ords indicate a temperature increaseby about 0.85o
C glob-
ally and about 1.3o
C in the Mediterranean area compared
to the levels of the time period of 1880-1920. Cook et al.
(2016) [14] refer in their study that the 1998-2012 period
was the driest of the last 500 years.
Future climate patterns foresee a further increase of air
temperature.It is noteworthy the fact that the predicted
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future changes in temperature over the next period (2016-
2035) are expected to be in the range of 0.3-0.7°C [15]
under medium confidence levels.
In the Mediterranean basin, models also predict, increases
in temperature and heat stress and reduction in precipita-
tion and water availability [16,17]with increases in ex-
treme heat and precipitation events [18]. Extreme tempera-
ture events are provided to become more regularly, intense
and longer duration than present [19].Generally, all warm-
ing scenarios in the Mediterranean predict worse future
conditions compared to the global pattern, with warming
to exceed 2o
C at the end of the century.Drier conditions are
also expected to threat the Mediterranean habitats
[9,10,20].
Land use changes
Land use changes in the Mediterranean are significant
when studying the effects of climate change. Petit et al.
(2001) [21] mentions contradicting changes in the basin
with deforestation, abandonment and intense use co-
existing. Though, the extensive reductions of forests by
intense land use [22], wildfires and grazing are the key
factors that shaped todaysMediterranean landscape
[23].The changes in climate along with those in land uses
(conversion of wildlands to agricultural lands and urban
areas) are expected affect negatively ecosystems biodiver-
sity [24,2].
Changesinplant growth
Warming, increase of drought and heat events and drastic
reduction in precipitation is likely within the next hundred
years in the Mediterranean basin with important conse-
quences in photosynthesis, growth and survival of local
vegetation [25,26].
It has been observed that increasing atmospheric CO2 con-
centration influence plants photosynthesis, consistently the
increases in plant water use efficiency enhancing the pho-
tosynthetic capacity and favoring the plant growth [27].
Specifically, rising concentrations of CO2 in the atmos-
phere increase photosynthesis rates and vary with plant
nitrogen status and species [28]. For example, mature
Fagussylvatica and Quercuspetratea responded more than
Carpinusbetulus, Prunusavium, and Tiliaplatyphyllos in a
central European free air experiment enrichment [29]. Tree
growth rate might not increase proportionally with in-
crease in photosynthesis because of other limiting factors
such as nutrient availability[30,31].
Although experiment enrichment or short – term CO2 in-
crease can lead to higher net primary productivity [32],
tree ring analysis in the Mediterranean shows the opposite
[33] probably due to limitations in water and nutrients
availability [34,35]. This is in line, with the recorded tree
growth reduction [36], increased growth variability [37]
and defoliation in Mediterranean forests the last decades.
The higher atmospheric CO2 concentration (increase from
280ppm in the pre-industrial age to 400 ppm at present,
Kennedy 2015 [38]) is not expected to lead to increase in
carbon assimilation by natural vegetation in the Mediterra-
nean, mainly because of the impact of drought to metabol-
ic limitation to photosynthesis [39] and limitations in water
availability and nutrients [40, 28]. Thus sclerophyllous
vegetation, that dominates the Mediterranean, will not be
favored by CO2 changes, while thermophilous species will
have to deal with better climatic conditions mainly because
of the warmer winters[26].
The Mediterranean species are established to temperature
zones where temperature is near its optimum values for
photosynthesis [40,41]. An increase in temperature (near
or beyond its critical values) combined with low water
availability, especially in summer, is expected to lead to
photosynthesis decline, reduction in CO2 assimilation and
stomatal conductance, cell dehydration and necrosis [42].
Though, there are species tolerant to high temperatures
with specific morphological characteristics (small thick or
trichom covered leaves, small leaf angles with the shoot,
etc.) and adaptation strategies (such as completion of bio-
logical stages before the drought ignition, intraspecific
variability, phenotypic plasticity, local adaptation, e.tc.
(seereviews [26,3]) that allow them to grow and survive to
warm environments. An interesting review of the adapta-
tion mechanisms of Mediterranean heat tolerant species to
drought was presented by Bussottiet al. (2014) [26], who
also mention extensively reported tree dieback events in
southern Europe and in Mediterranean regions and suffer-
ing of sclerophyllous Mediterranean vegetation due to se-
vere drought events.
Changes in vegetation patterns
Many studies foresee habitat reduction due to climate
change though, with different habitat loss rates [2]. The
habitat loss [43] and seed production [44] will be affected
by climate change, with direct effects to plant communi-
ties. Drought [15] and extreme cold events [46] are also
found to affect fauna.
The most sensitive vegetation zones in the Mediterranean
are those extended to the southern limits of the Mediterra-
nean basin. Changes in atmospheric CO2 concentration
(reaching 600ppm at the end of the century [25], will have
severe impacts on plant populations (Lenoir et al. 2008),
by affecting plant productivity and water use efficiency
[48, 49].
Habitat migration to regions with more favorable climate
conditions will also occur as a climate change adaptation
strategy of vegetation. Though, many plant species cannot
meet the needs of velocity transition requirements in order
to establish new plant communities in new areas [50]. Tin-
ner and Lotter (2006) [51] calculated that in order to ac-
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complish a 100 km migration transition, species will need
about 250-1000 years, when climate change occurs much
faster (according to A1B scenario mean temperature in-
crease velocity will be 42 km per 100 years and in many
regions will reach 100-1000 km per 100 years, [52]).
The spatial climate change shifts will occur with different
regional velocities, higher at lowlands and lower in moun-
tainous regions [52,53]. Also, different immigration rates
are expected among species with respect to their reproduc-
tive dynamics and dispersion strategy. For example, Clark
et al. (2001) [54] found migration rates varying from 300m
per year for boreal spruce to 0.1-1 m per year for animal-
disperse species, when Higgins et al. (2003) [55] estimated
much higher rates for specific weeds and shrubs reaching
2186 m per year. In general, Davis et al. (2005) [56] esti-
mated local adaptation times from decades to century for
herbs and 100-1000 years for trees.
Altitudinal upward shifts of vegetation have also occurred
during past along with immigration to southern (cooler)
areas. Bussottiet al. (2014)[26] states that tree species will
follow a migration natural pattern from south to north and
from low to high altitudes. Lenoir et al. (2008) [47] found
upward shift rates in 171 forest plant species in France of
about 29m per decade, when warming and elevation lapse
rates were much higher (about 75 m per decade).
The evergreen species are generally slower to adaptation in
changing environments [57]. Bussottiet al. (2014) [26]
states that these species in the Mediterranean, are not ex-
pected to respond to the fast climate change rates by evolu-
tionary adaptation, but probably will survive by migration
and that the evergreen tree species, in the future will ex-
tend to xeric regions that nowdays are covered by decidu-
ous oaks and mountains, while mountain conifers and
temperate deciduous species will be limited to their south-
ern extension ranges.
Reduce in frost injuries of plants [58] and increase in win-
ter photosynthesis [59] are expected due to warmer winters
in the Mediterranean, with regard to plant species [60]. In
general the sensitive to cold species will be favored over
the existing cold-tolerant and this will increase species-
competition and affect forests structure, population dy-
namics with possible results the conversion of forests to
shrublands[60].
The Mediterranean mountains are considered as extremely
vulnerable to climate change [9,10]. It is predicted that
will undergo warming, precipitation decrease and interan-
nual variability more intense than other mountains [20]
with higher species losses [61]. Ruiz-Labourdetteet al.
(2013)[62] forecast for the Mediterranean mountains’ veg-
etation that xerphylous vegetation will considerably in-
crease and dominate low mountain areas and perennial
sclerophyllous species will also increase, while moderate-
tolerant to water availability vegetation will notably de-
crease. At higher altitudes vegetation will up-shifted, the
semiarid forests will expand, the broadleaf forest will re-
duce and cold gymposperm forest will radically reduce
their expansion ranges.
Changes in phenology
Beyond its impact on vegetation composition and species
ranges, climate change affects also species phenology and
reproductive process. Phenology is affected both by pre-
cipitation and temperature [63,64] and can be considered
as a reliable index to track climate change impacts to the
species ecology [65].
Changes in phenophases have already being tracked the
last few decades [66] with advancement of flowering date
and increase in the length of the growing season. Parry et
al. (2007) [67] found a rate of spring onset advance by 2.3-
5.2 day per decade, since 1970s. Gordo and Sanz (2010)
[68] conducted an extensive research in Spain (29 species
from 1500 sites) and found advancement rates of 4.8, 5.9
and 3.2 days per decade in leaf-out, flowering and fruiting,
respectively and a rate of 1.2 days per decade delay in leaf
abscission since 1970s. Morin et al. (2010) [63] conducted
experimental warming and found advancing leaf-out of 8-
13 days both for evergreen and deciduous oaks, while Cle-
land et al. (2006) [69] found advanced flowering by 2-5
days for annual species though with phenological respons-
es variations among groups to elevated CO2 and N manip-
ulations.Richardson et al. (2013)[70] consider that climate
change will result to further advancement of vegetation’s
growing period in winter-spring and also earlier onset and
longer summer drought period.
Drought also affects phenology especially to species sensi-
tive to water availability such as shrubs [71] or grasses.
Peñuelas et al. (2003)[72] addresses rainfall and water
availability changes, as important factors leading to signif-
icant phenological changes in Mediterranean species of
bushes such as Erica multifloraandGlobulariaalypum in
Catalonia with subsequent changes in the structure, com-
position and operation of their communities. Though trees
are more tolerant because of the structure of their rooting
system that allows to exploit soil water from deeper [73].
Changesin wildfires
Fires are a key factor in the Mediterranean, with their
numbers to have increased the last decades [74] and fur-
ther increase is expected due to climate warming [75].
Additionally, under future climate change patterns, wild-
fires are expected to be more aggressive and not easily to
manage with current fire-suppressing strategies [76].
The forest fires have significant effect on vegetation dy-
namics in the Mediterranean which is mainly dominated
by non-resilient, to fire, species with low regeneration abil-
ity [77]. Ιncreases in fires frequency and/or intensity will
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impose the succession by oaks, shrublands and grasslands
[78], with high risk for other native species not to succeed
seeders regeneration [79] and the risk to increase the inva-
sion of non-native species [3]. In all cases the wildfires
frequency and specifically the length of the period between
fire events is crucial. According to Valdecantos (2008)
[80] if the period between two consecutive fire incidents is
too small, is rather unlikely to achieveproper seed-
regeneration, with consequences to future post-fire succes-
sion and rehabilitation of the ecosystem, especially for
exclusively seed-regenerated species such as Pinus sp.,
Ulexparviflorus, Cistus sp. etc.
Changes in soils
Soil processes are affected by precipitation [81]. Climate
change impacts on vegetation is expected also to affect
soils due to both climate change [82] and vegetation
changes [83]. These soil changes will again adversely af-
fect vegetation dynamics as already occurred during the
Holocene [84]. Johnstone and Chapin (2003) [85] mention
that the local expansion of pines against spruce, increased
fire incidents and reduced soil carbon.Both changes in
soils and vegetation regimes will have impacts in local
hydrology and water chemistry e.g. lakes [86]. Important
is the effect of soil depth on climate change impacts, main-
ly because it affects evapotranspiration and runoff dynam-
ics [5].
IV. CONCLUDED REMARKS
Climate change scenarios predict massive impacts on
Mediterranean forests. Though, changes in climate have
also occurred in the past and plants managed to adapt to
the new established environments through morphological,
anatomical, physiological and molecular mechanisms and
processes [57]. In the Mediterranean plants adopted sur-
vival mechanisms in order to avoid the winter frost or
summer drought. Webb (1986) [87] estimates that vegeta-
tion adaptation will occur fast enough, so to accomplish
equilibrium with climate.
Doblas-Miranda (2016) [3] mentions that different climate
change factors, when combined, can alter the effect of oth-
ers, changing the impacts of global change, especially in
the Mediterranean, where many contradicting factors co-
exist. They also state that “although global change is una-
voidable in many cases, change does not necessarily mean
catastrophe, but adaptation” and consider as a challenge
the conservation of Mediterranean ecosystems.
Under this point of view and in order to meet climate
change challenge, it is considered necessary a) to continue
monitoring and research concerning climate change pat-
terns and impacts on regional scales and b) to implement
management strategies in order to preserve Mediterranean
habitats and improve vegetation’s adaptation to the new
established environments.
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