This essay is a Walden University course (EDUC-8102) assignment. It overviews the philosophy of research core concepts and other approaches to research. Philosophical frameworks include empiricism, scientific method, positivism, post-positivism, social constructivism, pragmatism, and advocacy liberatory. The document is written in APA format and includes references.

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A6: Research Knowledge Assessment
Orlanda Haynes
Walden University
Author Note
This paper was prepared for Richard W. Riley School of Education and Leadership
EDUC 8102-6 Applied Research and Adult Learn
Ed. D Student
Spring 2015

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Abstract
This paper is an overview of the philosophy of research, core concepts for research designs, and
other approaches to research. Philosophical frameworks include empiricism, scientific method,
positivism, post-positivism, social constructivism, pragmatism, and advocacy/liberatory. Under
discussion are aspects of design processes such as theoretical and conceptual inferences, nature
of research questions, inquiries, literature reviews, samplings, populations, phenomena,
variables, objectivity and reliability, assumptions, limitations, and delimitations, as well as the
advantages and disadvantages of programs’ evaluations, and action research. As such, this work
could serve as a knowledge base for graduate students in terms of expanding their awareness of
research processes, philosophies, and methodologies as well as how such knowledge facilitates
the process of theory to practice.

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A6: Research Knowledge Assessment
Philosophy of Research
How Does Empiricism Relate to Quantitative ResearchMethodology?
As with quantitative frameworks, the aim is to test and retest hypotheses with the aim of
supporting or refuting premises; results, therefore, must be replicable. This process is facilitated,
in part, by using controlled settings. Moreover, although observations are not elements of
quantitative designs- the data are (i.e., surveys, experiences, perceptions, attitudes, and skills).
This approach is not contradictory because researchers perform tests for truthfulness as well as
for instrument reliability. Test replicability in both methods is paramount (Hoffman, 2005;
Lodico, Spaulding, & Voegtle, 2010; Long, 2010).
What are the Meaning of Scientific Method, Positivism, and Post-Positivism?
Systematic approaches whereby researchers describe, predict, and explain phenomena
are called scientific methods. When an issue or question needs to be addressed, for example,
researchers
 develop hypotheses or inquiries,
 conduct literature reviews,
 collect and analyze data,
 interpret findings,
 propose new questions or recommendations, and
 disseminate results.
Its origin is a derivative of empiricism and reasoning, which laid the foundation for
modernism or scientific empiricism; hence, the scientific method. Positivism is rooted in
empiricism primarily because testing observations for truthfulness are considered critical to

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research and because tests on tangible objects rather than assumptions (i.e., theory testing and
measurements of descriptive data) are used to support findings. In contrast, post-positivism
stance is contrary. Its belief is that neither knowledge nor observations are trustworthy. However,
the relevancy of objectivity is acknowledged and achieved, in part, by employing multiple data
collection measures and triangulation (Creswell, 2013; Lodico, et al., 2010; Long, 2010).
Describe the Importance and Challenges of Objectivity in Research
Research findings expand knowledge and awareness; fill gaps in literature; confirm or
dispute findings; test the validity of instruments; update education programs as well as provide
support for new education policies and guidelines. As such, objectivity in research is highly
important. However, absolute objectivity is uncommon, primarily because of human nature
(Creswell, 2013; Lodico, et al., 2010).
Describe the Philosophical Developments of Scientific Realism, Social Constructivism,
Advocacy/liberatory, and Pragmatism, and Tell How They Are Evident in Research
Scientific realism is a knowledge-oriented approach. It aligns with quantitative methods
and has its origin in positivism. Primary assumptions are that social and psychological
phenomena can be defined and understood through basic research. That knowledge is
conjectural, that statistics tests should be used to test all hypotheses, and that, to ensure
objectivity, researchers should not directly engage with participants (Lodico et al., 2010).
Comparatively, social constructivism, also known as interpretive, constructivist, and
naturalistic frameworks, uses knowledge-oriented frameworks, but the percept is that multiple
realities are innate to reality. In other words, unlike scientific realists who believe that studying
reality can be achieved by exploring its parts—constructivists argue that such phenomena should
be viewed and studied as a “complex whole” because historical, social-economic, and cultural

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contexts are interconnected factors. Therefore, they explore the phenomena through a context-
specific perspective vs. value-bound; this is achieved by using descriptive research methods (i.e.,
life histories, interviews, videos, and pictures) (Lodico et al., 2010).
As Lincoln and Guba (1985, as cited in Lodico et al., 2010) informed us, “this means that
the process of inquiry is influenced by the researcher and by the context under study; thus, reality
is socially constructed by individuals that lead to multiply meanings” (p. 15).
In contrast, advocacy-liberatory and pragmatism are rooted in philosophical foundations. The
latter identifies what works and vice versa. The formal emphasizes moral values. The framework
serves to improve the lives underrepresented people (Lodico, et al., 2010).
Discuss the Similarities and Differences Between Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks.
Whereas both establish foundations for research—broad concepts and loose ideas are
considered conceptual. They help identify relationships and underlying constructs among
variables. All of which could lead to the development of theoretical frameworks because loose
sets of ideas and concepts are building blocks of quantitative research (Lodico et al., 2010).
How Do Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks Relate to ResearchStudies?
As research foundations, theoretical or conceptual premises are used. Broad concepts and
ideas define conceptual; they are used to discuss the possibility of relationships among variables.
This process could lead to the developments of theoretical frameworks because it brings together
loose sets of ideas and concepts, which are constructs of quantitative designs. In that, through
hypotheses testing their views could become theoretical frameworks. The result of cause-and-
effect relationships or X causes Y (Lodico et al., 2010; Long, 2010).
Core Concepts for Research Design
What is the Reasonfor Identifying a ResearchQuestion, a Hypothesis, and a Problem?

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Research is a structured process. Questions are used to focus the study; they are usually
developed during literature reviews. In some instances, statements of inquiries are used instead
of questions. They provide a detailed explanation as to the problem under study or research
interest. Either way, the question or inquiry must be researchable through basic or applied
research methods. Formation of hypotheses, tentative explanations that can be tested through
data analysis, usually follows question constructs. Although not necessary to conduct research,
they are significantly important for several reasons. Mainly, they
 provide clarity which facilitates movement directions more easily,
 bring specificity to research studies (tests only particular aspects of the problem),
 could reduce the study’s timeframe because hypotheses could be accepted or rejected
prior to completion of the study,
 focus the study and provide relevance.
Also, hypotheses should be well-defined. In other words, statements should be simple,
concise, and written in language this is audience specific. For instance, ambiguous hypotheses
could be misleading; and, therefore, adversely affect results. Constructing a research problem is
equally important. It not only begins the research process but also highlights the study’s
relevance. Although there is no scientific rule that governs this process—to reduce
ambiguities—it should be done in a sequential manner. Basic steps include identifying research
interests that are worthy of your concern, time and energy. Secondly, it is important to decide on
a subject area in which you have a working knowledge or seek expert advice; this will facilitate
the literature review process (Lodico et al., 2010; Hoffman, 2005; Long, 2010).
What is addressed in the “Purpose” of a Research Study?

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It clearly defines the nature of the study. For example, the following questions are
examples of such: what factors warrant the research? What variables exist; and what theoretical
or conceptual framework is the study based on (Lodico, et al., 2010)?
What is a Literature Review and how is a Quality Review Conducted?
It expands knowledge bases and informs researchers about studies that are relevant to
their research. It includes, among others, authors’ names and works, their publishers, and dates
of publications. It also identifies works that have undergone peer-reviews (Lodico et al., 2010).
Describe and Differentiate Between Population and Sample
Samples consist of research participants; whereas, population refers to their origin
or group affiliations. This data are crucial because most are used to draw conclusions, set sample
and population parameters, and, in some cases, results are generalized to the larger population
(Lodico et al., 2010).
What is meant by the Term Variable in a ResearchStudy?
Any measurable factors, traits, or conditions that account for cause-and-effect
relationships define variables. Most research designs include independent and dependent
variables. Dependent variables are denoted by changes caused by independent variables. Any
variable that could negatively or positively affect the outcomes of the dependent variable is
referred to as extraneous. A basic example in education could involve the implementation of a
tutoring program to improve environmental science scores of adult learners. Whereas, the
program is the independent variable and improved science scores are the dependent variables. As
Lodico et al. (2010) explains,” variables are defined as attributes, qualities, and characteristics of
persons, groups, settings, or institutions, such as gender, social skills, socioeconomic status,
exclusiveness, or achievements” (pp. 13-14)

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How Are “Findings” Reported?
It depends, largely, on the type of study conducted. For example, graphs, charts, and
tables are used to report quantitative findings; qualitative designs usually use descriptive
narratives. In contrast, program evaluators report findings through summative reports (Lodico, et
al., 2010).
How and why are Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations Considered?
They address various restrictions and inherent flaws in research designs. Assumptions
and limitations affect research inferences. Delimitations refer to research boundaries (Lodico, et
al., 2010).
Describe Concepts Relatedto Validity (internal and external) and Reliability
They are primary criteria used to determine the quality of quantitative measures. When
instruments yield designed results, validity is achieved. If the instruments produce the same
results over time, then reliability is established. Changes that are caused by manipulating
dependent variables refer to internal validity; threats include history maturation, statistical
regressions, and pre-testing. External Validity is the opposite of internal validity or the extent to
which generalization transfers to larger samples. Threats include selection bias, history effects
and maturation, and research settings (Lodico, et al. 2010).
Other Approaches to Research
Describe the Advantages and Disadvantages between Program Evaluation Methods
Method selection is based on (1) the projects’ purpose, (2) stakeholders’ requirements,
and (3) clients’ objectives. Of the five methods, objective-based is most common. Goals are
specific, and benchmarks define success. However, unanticipated outcomes or benefits could be
missed if evaluators become too focused on program’s goals. Goal-free evaluations do not use

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objectives. This factor poses funding issues because outcomes must be clarified prior to
funding. Expertise-oriented is the oldest and most used method.
Evaluators are content experts who are mostly employed by accreditation granting
institutions. They do not collect data (presented by clients); therefore, they can serve as program
judges. Participatory-oriented evaluations accommodate program participants. In that, among
others, they can serve as program guides and set program objectives. Logic models, on the other
hand, are the most challenged because the program excludes some end-users. However, it
provides a logical chain of events by identifying needed measures throughout the evaluation
process. The program uses pre-post control group designs. Although beneficial for identifying
casual relationships, they contradict logical inferences (Lodico, et al., 2010).
Describe Advantages and Disadvantages of Action Researchwith Other ResearchDesigns
Action research combines professional practice, various research methods, and reflection
to maintain objectivity and to update practice continuously. Unlike most basic and applied
research designs that widen our knowledge bases, fill gaps in the literature, or expand or refute
theories, its goal is to identify issues or solve problems immediately. It is design, location, and
participant specific; therefore, results are not used for generalization purposes (Creswell, 2013;
Lodico, et al., 2013). In contrast, program evaluation is similar in that its aim is to make an
immediate change; however, researchers do not engage in regular program activities.
In education, the primary purpose is to improve educational environments and outcomes
through a process of actively combining professional practices, multiple research techniques, and
reflections on one’s area of interest (Arhar, Holly, & Kasten, 2001, as cited in Lodico et al.,
2010). As in qualitative research, action researchers are active participants; therefore, internal
validity is achieved by continuously evaluating their assumptions and biases. Also, data are

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collected, in part, through verbal means (i.e., interviews and observations). Some differences are
that qualitative researchers provide detailed descriptions and representations of research
environments, and their primary goal is to blend into natural settings to avoid influencing natural
activities and outcomes.
On the other hand, among others, action research designs include
 active participation of researchers and participants,
 quantitative and qualitative data collection methods,
 descriptive statistics and triangulation, and
 credibility and dependability are achieved by employing protocols and recordings.
Philosophically, action research aligns with advocacy-liberatory (also known as critical
action research or critical pedagogy), and pragmatic which also aligns with practical action
research (Hoffman, 2005; Lodico et al., 2010; Long, 2010).
Moreover, as Lodico et al. informs us
Action research core assumption is that practitioners are capable of independent action
and systematic inquiry into their educational practices. That insiders (i.e., educators, etc.),
have valuable knowledge that needs to form the basis for making decisions about schools.
In other words, those involved in the day-to-day practice are the experts. (p. 331).
In brief, this paper is an overview of the philosophy of research, core concepts for
research designs, and other approaches to research. Literature was presented using questions
relevant to these areas of study. This information is especially useful to graduate students who
want to explore foundational and philosophical aspects of empiricism, scientific method and
scientific realism, positivism, post-positivism, social constructivism, advocacy/liberatory,
pragmatism, similarities and differences between theoretical and conceptual frameworks,

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characteristics of assumptions, limitations, and delimitation, quantitative, qualitative, and action
research, as well as various program evaluation methods.

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References
Creswell, J.W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: choosing among the five
approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Hoffman, L. (2005). Depth psychology and the empirically supported movement: Critical issues.
Retrieved from the Depth Psychotherapy Network: http://www.depth-psychotherapy-
network.com /Professional_Section/Emprically_Supported_Treatment_Debate/Hoffman_
EST_1.htm
Lodico M., Spaulding, D. T., & Voegtle, K. H. (2010). Methods in educational research: From
theory to practice. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
Long, N. (Speaker). (2010). A personal connection to research: Survey research: Additional
Considerations [Media]. Walden University:
http://sylvan.live.ecollege.com/ec/courses/53028/CRS-EDUC8000-
4449580/presentation2/2-2/index.htm.