This document discusses the history and key discoveries related to DNA and genetics. It covers:
- Griffith and Avery's early experiments showing DNA carries genetic information between generations
- Watson and Crick developing the double helix model of DNA structure
- DNA replication following Chargaff's rules of base pairing between A=T and G=C
- RNA and protein synthesis through transcription and translation of DNA into mRNA and proteins
- Types of mutations like point mutations, chromosomal mutations, and their harmful or beneficial effects
DNA :- SYNOPSIS :- 1.History
2.Structure of Nucleic acid
3.Structure of DNA & RNA
4.Watson and crick’s model of DNA
5.Types of DNA
6.Types of RNA
7.DNA VS RNA
8.Conclusion
The genetic material of a cell or an organism refers to those materials found in the nucleus, mitochondria and cytoplasm, which play a fundamental role in determining the structure and nature of cell substances, and capable of self-propagating and variation.
DNA :- SYNOPSIS :- 1.History
2.Structure of Nucleic acid
3.Structure of DNA & RNA
4.Watson and crick’s model of DNA
5.Types of DNA
6.Types of RNA
7.DNA VS RNA
8.Conclusion
The genetic material of a cell or an organism refers to those materials found in the nucleus, mitochondria and cytoplasm, which play a fundamental role in determining the structure and nature of cell substances, and capable of self-propagating and variation.
History of DNA. introduction of DNA with short history and findings. different types of DNA with structures variations. A -DNA, B- DNA, C- DNA E- DNA D- DNA And Z DNA Detail information of these DNA with their comparison tables, different types of unusual DNA and sequences. Functions of DNA with their explanations . Nucleic acid chemical basis : Denaturation and annealing of DNA with factors for that. New DNA.
DNA (Deoxyribo nucleic acid) is the principal genetic material of all organisms, except some viruses.
In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick proposed the structural model of DNA for which they received the Nobel Prize in 1962.
History of DNA. introduction of DNA with short history and findings. different types of DNA with structures variations. A -DNA, B- DNA, C- DNA E- DNA D- DNA And Z DNA Detail information of these DNA with their comparison tables, different types of unusual DNA and sequences. Functions of DNA with their explanations . Nucleic acid chemical basis : Denaturation and annealing of DNA with factors for that. New DNA.
DNA (Deoxyribo nucleic acid) is the principal genetic material of all organisms, except some viruses.
In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick proposed the structural model of DNA for which they received the Nobel Prize in 1962.
104 Genetics and cellular functionLearning Objective.docxaulasnilda
1
04 Genetics and cellular
function
Learning Objectives
• With respect to nucleic acids:
• Identify the monomers and polymers.
• Compare and contrast general molecular structure.
• Define the terms genetic code, transcription and translation.
• Explain how and why RNA is synthesized.
• Explain the roles of tRNA, mRNA, and rRNA in protein synthesis.
• Define the term cellular respiration.
• With respect to glycolysis, the Krebs (citric acid or TCA) cycle, and the electron transport chain: compare and
contrast energy input, efficiency of energy production, oxygen use, by-products and cellular location.
• Referring to a generalized cell cycle, including interphase and the stages of mitosis:
• Describe the events that take place in each stage.
• Identify cells that are in each stage.
• Analyze the functional significance of each stage.
• Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis.
• Describe DNA replication.
• Analyze the interrelationships among chromatin, chromosomes and chromatids.
• Give examples of cell types in the body that divide by mitosis and examples of circumstances in the body that
require mitotic cell division.
• Compare and contrast the processes of mitosis and meiosis.
• Provide specific examples to demonstrate how individual cells respond to their environment (e.g., in terms of
organelle function, transport processes, protein synthesis, or regulation of cell cycle) in order to maintain
homeostasis in the body.
• Predict factors or situations that could disrupt organelle function, transport processes, protein synthesis, or the
cell cycle.
• Predict the types of problems that would occur if the cells could not maintain homeostasis due to abnormalities
in organelle function, transport processes, protein synthesis, or the cell cycle.
2
DNA and RNA—The Nucleic Acids
DNA Structure
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)—
long, thread-like molecule with
2 nm diameter, but varied
length
• 46 DNA molecules in nucleus of
most human cells
• Average length about 43,000 μm
each
• DNA (and other nucleic acids)
are polymers of nucleotides
• Nucleotide consists of a sugar,
phosphate group, and
nitrogenous base
• A single DNA nucleotide
• One deoxyribose sugar
• One phosphate group
• One nitrogenous base
3
Nitrogenous Bases
• Purines—double ring
• Adenine (A)
• Guanine (G)
• Pyrimidines—single ring
• Cytosine (C)
• Thymine (T)
• Uracil (U) (not found in DNA,
only found in RNA)
DNA Structure
• Phosphate and Sugar unite by covalent bonds to
form “backbone”
• Nitrogenous bases of two backbones united by
hydrogen bonds
• A purine on one strand always bound to a pyrimidine
on the other
• A–T two hydrogen bonds
• C–G three hydrogen bonds
• Double helix shape of DNA (resembles spiral
staircase)
• Law of complementary base pairing
• One strand determines base sequence of other
4
Chromatin and Chromosomes
• Most human cells have 2 million μm (2m)
of DNA
• Nucleosome - DNA winds around eight ...
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
1. History
• Frederick Griffith (1928) – experimented with
pneumonia – ability to cause disease was
inherited by the transformed bacteria’s offspring,
the transforming factor might be a gene
• Oswald Avery (et al.) (1944) – nucleic acid DNA
stores and transmits the genetic information
from one generation of an organism to the next
(genes are composed of DNA)
2. Cont.
• Hershey-Chase (1952) – genetic material
of the bacteriophage was DNA, not protein
• Watson-Crick – develop the double-helix
model of the structure of DNA
• Gilbert-Maxam-Sanger (1977)-develop
methods to read the DNA sequence
• Human Genome Project (2000) –
sequence all human DNA
3. Function of DNA
• 1. genes have to carry information from
one generation to the next
• 2. put information to work by determining
the heritable characteristic of organisms
• 3. genes have to be easily copied
4. Components
• DNA – long molecule made up of units
called nucleotides
• Nucleotides:
– 5-carbon sugar
– Phosphate group
– Nitrogenous base
5. Cont.
• Purines:
• Adenine and guanine
• Pyrimidines:
• Cytosine and thymine
• Form chains in A=T and G=C (Chargaff’s
rules)
• Base pairing – hydrogen bonds form
between certain bases
6. Cont.
• Chromatin – DNA and a protein (histones)
called nucleosomes
• Nucleosomes can fold DNA into tiny space
7. Replication
• Each strand of DNA in the double helix
has the exact information needed to copy
itself
• Produces two new complementary strands
following the rules of base pairing
• Each strand of the double helix of DNA
serves as a template for the new strand
8.
9. Cont.
• Replication – duplicates its DNA
(replication forks)
• Enzymes “unzip” by breaking the
hydrogen bond
• DNA polymerase is the enzyme used in
replication and “proofreads” the DNA to
maximize the perfect copy of DNA
• VIDEO
10. RNA and Protein Synthesis
• RNA –long chain of nucleotides of sugar,
phosphate and base
• Differences:
– Ribose (sugar)
– Generally single-stranded
– Contains uracil in place of thymine
11. Cont.
• Three main types of RNA: mRNA, rRNA,
and tRNA
• mRNA: carry copies of instructions for
assembling amino acids into proteins;
serve as a “messenger” for DNA to rest of
the cell
• rRNA: proteins are assembled on
ribosomes
12. Cont.
• tRNA: transfers each amino acid to the
ribosome as it is specified by coded
messages in mRNA
• Transcription: RNA polymerase binds to
DNA and separates the DNA strand, RNA
polymerase then uses one strand of DNA
as a template from which nucleotides are
assembled into a strand of RNA
13. Cont.
• RNA polymerase enzyme will only bind to
DNA regions where promoters are
present, which have specific base
sequences
• Introns are not involved in coding proteins,
exons are the DNA sequences that code
for proteins and are “expressed” in the
synthesis of proteins
14. Cont.
• Introns are removed from the final RNA
molecule and the exons are spliced
together to form the mRNA
• Proteins form from long chains of amino
acids called polypeptides – containing any
or all of the 20 different amino acids
• mRNA’s “language” of instructions is
called the genetic code
15. Cont.
• Bases on RNA – A, U, C, G read 3 letters
at a time, each coded “word” is called a
codon and will represent a specific amino
acid or stop codons
• Translation - decoding or reading of
codons takes place in ribosomes, and
uses information from mRNA to produce
proteins
16. Steps in RNA
• 1. mRNA transcribes from DNA in
nucleus and released into cytoplasm
• 2. mRNA in cytoplasm attaches to
ribosome and each codon of mRNA
moves through the ribosome and specific
amino acid is transferred to polypeptide
chain ---tRNA has 3 unpaired bases called
anticodon
17. Mutations
• Mutations – mistakes (harmful/beneficial)
• Changes in genetic material
• Point mutation happens at a single point in
a base and includes: substitution, deletion,
and insertion and are called frame shift
mutations
• Causes can be dramatic as code has
“shifted” from that point on
18. Cont
• Chromosomal mutations
• Deletion – loss of all or part of
chromosome
• Duplication – extra copy is produced
• Inversion – reverses the direction of parts
of chromosomes
• Translocation – chromosome breaks off
and attached to another
19. Cont.
• Harmful – cause many genetic diseases
(Down Syndrome, Turner’s syndrome,
Fragile X syndrome and cancers)
• Beneficial – large crops, allows for
variations in species
20. Regulation
• Operon – group of genes that operate
together
• Eukaryotic genes are controlled
individually and have regulatory
sequences that are very complex
• Differentiation – specialized structure and
function
• Hox genes – control cells and tissues
21. Progeria – mutation to gene lamin A (LMNA)
causes protein malfunction that keeps cell nucleus in tack
(Hayley Okines -2015)
22. Down Syndrome
trisomy 21
caused by the presence of all or part of a third copy ofchromosome 21.[1]
Down syndrome is the most common chromosome abnormality in
humans
25. Epidermodysplasia
verruciformis also called Lewandowsky-
Lutz dysplasia
extremely rare autosomal recessive genetic[1]
hereditary skin
disorder associated with a high risk of carcinoma of the skin