This document provides an overview of molecular biology concepts including: - DNA contains genetic codes that are identical in all cells of an organism. The genome is the entire DNA complement and controls protein production. - DNA is made up of nucleotides that form base pairs (A-T, C-G) along a phosphate-sugar backbone forming two complementary strands that twist into the double helix structure. - Genes are portions of DNA that are transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA), which is then translated into proteins according to its nucleotide sequence using codons.

1. Introduction to Molecular Biology
(based on pages 25-36 of Kohane et al’s book)
Chitta Baral
Arizona State University

2. Cells, genome, gene and DNA
• Almost all cells of a living organism contain an identical
set of codes describing the genes and their regulation
• This code is encoded as one or more strands of DNA
• Cells from the different parts of an organism have the
same DNA
– Distinction: The portion of the DNA that is transcribed and
translated into protein
• Genome: entire complement of DNA molecules of each
organism
• Overall function of genome: Control the generation of
molecules (mostly proteins) that will
– Regulate the metabolism of a cell and its response to the
environment, and
– Provide structural integrity.

3. Structure of DNA
• Made up of 4 different building blocks (so
called nucleotide bases), each an almost
planar nitrogenic organic compound
– Adenine (A)
– Thymine (T)
– Guanine (G)
– Cytosine (C)
– Base pairs (A -- T, C -- G)

4. Structure of DNA -- 2
• Base pairs (A -- T,C -- G) are attached to a sugar phosphate
backbone to form one of 2 strands of a DNA molecule.
– Phosphate ((PO4) -3)
– Deoxyribose
• Two strands are bonded together by the base pairs (A – T, C – G).
• Results in mirror image or complementary strands, each is twisted
(or helical), and when bonded they form a double helix.
• Direction of each strand (5’ meaning beginning or 3’ meaning end of
the strand)
– 5’ and 3’ refer to position of bases in relation to the sugar molecule in
the DNA backbone.
– Are important reference points to navigate the genome.
– 2 complementary strands are oriented in opposite direction to each
other.

5. Structure of DNA -- 3

6. Duplication of DNA
• Occurs through the coordinated action of
many molecules, including
– DNA polymerases (synthesizing new DNA),
– DNA gyrases (unwinding the molecule), and
– DNA ligases (concatenating segments
together)

7. Transcription of DNA to RNA
• Why transcription:
– (For genome) to direct or effect changes in the cytoplasm of the
cell
– Need to generate new proteins to populate the cytosol
(heteregenous intracellular soup of the cytoplasm)
• Note: DNA is in the nucleus, while proteins are needed in
the cytoplasm, where many of the cell’s functions are
performed.
• Coding region of the DNA is copied to a more transient
molecule called RNA
– Gene is a single segment of the coding region that is transcribed
into RNA
– Generation of RNA from DNA (in the nucleus) is done trough a
process called transcription

8. Transcription
• RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
– Similar to DNA (except for a chemical modification of the sugar backbone)
– Instead of T contains U (Uracil) which binds with A.
– Is not double stranded but single stranded
– RNA molecules tend to fold back on themselves to make helical twisted and rigid
segments.
• RNA is synthesized
– By unwinding the DNA double helix separating the 2 strands.
– Using one of the strands as a template along which to build the RNA molecule
– Accomplished by Enzyme RNA polymerase (binds to promoter and copies or
transcribes the gene in its full length)
– Resulting molecule is called Pre-mRNA
– Single stranded pre-mRNA is then processed.
– Splicing (mediated by spliceosome consisting of RNA and proteins) removes the
introns.
– Ends modified (Capping modifies 5’ end and Polyadenylation adds adenines at
the 3’ end) to enhance stability

9. mRNA, ORFs, etc.
• Each cell has 20 to 30 pg of RNA (1% of the cell mass)
• The RNA that codes for proteins is called messenger
RNA (mRNA)
• The part of DNA that provides that code is called Open
Reading Frame (ORF)
• When read in the standard 5’ to 3’ direction, the portion
of DNA before the ORF is considered upstream and the
portion following the ORF is considered downstream.
• Promoter regions: DNA sequence upstream of an ORF
– Specifically determine which gene to transcribe
– Transcription factors: proteins that contain part that bind to
specific promoter regions, thus activating or deactivating
transcription of the downstream ORF

10. Coding and non-coding RNA
• Not all RNA code for proteins
– 4% of total RNA is made of coding RNA
– Of the non-coding RNA
• Ribosonal RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA(tRNA) are used in
the various protein translational apparatus
• Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) – found in eucaryotes, is part of
the splicing apparatus
• Small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) involved in methylation of
rRNA
• Small cytoplasmic RNA (scRNA) plays a role in the
expression of specific genes

11. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells
• Eukaryotes: Organisms whose cells contain
compartments or organelles within the cell, such
as mitochondria and nucleus
– Animals, plants
• Prokaryotes: Whose cells do not have these
organelles (e.g. bacteria)
– Most prokaryotes have a smaller genome, typically
contained in a single circular DNA molecule.
– Additional genetic information may be contained in
smaller satellite pieces of DNA called plasmids

12. More on transcription
• Most eukaryotic genes have exons (portions that will be
put in the mRNA) and introns (that are normally spliced
out)
– Some introns may have a promoter-like control of the
transcription process
– If an intron is not spliced out then an alternative splicing product
is created.
– Various tissue types can flexibly alter their gene products
through alternative splicing
• Post-splicing (in Eukaryotes)
– The generated mRNA is exported (through nuclear pore
complexes) to the cytoplasm
– In the cytoplasm, the ribosonal complex (containing hundreds of
proteins and special function RNA molecules) acts to generate
the protein on the basis of the mRNA code.

13. Translation
• Process of generating a protein or polypeptide from an
mRNA molecule is known as translation.
• Protein: a polymer or chain of aminoacids, whose
sequence is determined by the mRNA template
– 3 nulceotides code for 20 naturally occurring amino acids
– 43 = 64; thus several trinucleotide sequences (codons)
correspond to a single amino acid.
– There is no nucleotide between codons, and a few codons
represent start and stop.
– Notable exceptions: code of naturally occurring selenocysteine is
identical to that for a stop codon, except for a particular
nucleotide sequence further downstream.

14. Translocation of proteins
• A newly formed protein need to be translocated
to the right place to perform its function (such as
structural protein in the cytoskeleton, as a cell
membrane receptor, as a hormone that is to be
secreted by the cell, etc.)
• Signal peptide (header): part of the polypeptide
that is one of the determinant of its location and
handling

15. Transcriptional programs
• Initiation of the transcription process can be caused by
external events or by a programmed event within the
cell.
• External events
– Piezoelectric forces generated in bones through walking can
gradually stimulate osteoblastic and osteoclastic transcriptional
activity to cause bone remodelling; Heat shock
– Appearance or disappearance of new micro or macronutrients
around the cell; binding of distantly secreted hormones
• Internally programmed sequences of transcriptional
expression (eg. clock and per genes)
• Pathological internal derangements of the cell
– Self-repair or damage detection programs can trigger apoptosis
(self-destruction) under conditions such as irreparable DNA
damage

16. Biological function of proteins
• Enzyme catalysis: DNA polymerases, lactate dehydrogenase,
trypsin
• Transport: hemoglobin, membrane transporters, serum albumin
• Storage: ovalbumin, egg-white protein, ferritin
• Motion: myosin, actin, tubulin, flagellar proteins
• Structural and mechanical support: collagen, elastin, keratin, viral
coat proteins
• Defense: antibodies, complement factors, blood clotting factors,
protease inhibitors
• Signal transduction: receptors, ion channels, rhodopsin, G
proteins, signalling cascade proteins
• Control of growth, differentiation and metabolism: repressor
proteins, growth factors, cytokines, bone morphogenic proteins,
peptide hormones, cell adhesion proteins
• Toxins: snake venoms, cholera toxin

17. Gene expression studies
• Allow you to understand how a gene is regulated in a tissue or a cell type.
• Most useful way of studying gene expression is by measuring the levels of
mRNA produced from a particular gene in a particular tissue.
• Application: to understand certain biological process it is useful to study the
differences in gene expression which occur during such processes. E.g.
– It is of interest to know which genes are induced or repressed, say in the liver,
after a particular drug is taken.
– Or which genes are expressed in a tumor but not in the surrounding normal
tissue.
• Some techniques for analyzing mRNA level of a single gene or to quantify
gene expression
– Northern blots
– Quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR (QT-RT-PCR)
– DNA microarrays
– Proteomics (analysis of the protein synthesis that results from gene expression)

18. DNA microarrays
• Consist of thousands of DNA probes corresponding to different genes
arranged as an array.
• Each probe (sometimes consisting of a short sequences of synthetic DNA)
is complementary to a different mRNA (or cDNA)
• mRNA isolated from a tissue or cell type is converted to fluoroscently
labeled mRNA or cDNA and is used to hybridize the array.
• All expressed genes in the sample will bind to one probe of the array and
generate a fluoroscent signal.
• A DNA microarray can interrogate the level of transcription of several
thousand of different genes from one sample in one experiment. (One DNA
microarray experiment reveals the mRNA levels of 1000s of genes from one
tissue or cell type at one time point)
• Particularly useful when studying the effect of environmental factors on
gene expression.
• A fingernail size chip can interrogate 10,000 different transcripts. Chip has
30-40 different probes; half of them are designed to perfectly match 20
nucleotide stretches of the gene and the other half contains a mismatch as
a control to test for specificity of the hybridization signal.

19. SNPs
(single nucleotide polymorphisms)
• Genetic basis for organismal diversity is due in large part
to differences in sequences, also known as
polymorphisms of each gene.
• Most of these polymorphisms differ from one another by
one nucleotide and are known as SNPs.
• Due to the small portion of the genome coding for
proteins and the redundancy in the mRNA code, only
some SNPs will result in differently constructed proteins.
• It is believed that genomic markers such as SNPs
spaced every 1000 bases will be sufficient to
unambiguously resolve the span of genome associated
with a phenotypic difference to a single gene.

20. Gene clustering dogma
• Genes that appeared to be expressed in
similar patterns are mechanistically
related.
• I.e., if we can find genes whose
expression patterns approximate one
another we can possibly conclude that
they have functions that are related.