A CRISPR/Cas9, works like a biological version of a word-processing programme’s “find and replace”. Its simplicity and extremely low cost of implementation is the reason to use. How Cas 9 is activated and its mechanism (DNA binding and cleavage), it's regulation and application in human disease therapy, new drug screening, agriculture and biofuel etc.
A simple version of the CRISPR/Cas system, CRISPR/Cas9, has been modified to edit genomes. By delivering the Cas9 nuclease complexed with a synthetic guide RNA (gRNA) into a cell, the cell's genome can be cut at a desired location, allowing existing genes to be removed and/or new ones added.
a brief description on the new emerging genome editing technology CRISPR-Cas9. this technique is making its place stronger and stronger day by day. and impossible things can be possible by this technique. and some main and famous names who discovered this technique.
i explained about basics of genome engineering and crispr system.
CRISPR will change the world and it is just the beginning, are you ready to meet the future? you think its great and beautiful or.....?
please give your feedback to my email
pooyanaghshbandi@yahoo.com
i am starting to write a critical and fantastic review article about CRISPR, if you are interested to join please contact me.
A simple version of the CRISPR/Cas system, CRISPR/Cas9, has been modified to edit genomes. By delivering the Cas9 nuclease complexed with a synthetic guide RNA (gRNA) into a cell, the cell's genome can be cut at a desired location, allowing existing genes to be removed and/or new ones added.
a brief description on the new emerging genome editing technology CRISPR-Cas9. this technique is making its place stronger and stronger day by day. and impossible things can be possible by this technique. and some main and famous names who discovered this technique.
i explained about basics of genome engineering and crispr system.
CRISPR will change the world and it is just the beginning, are you ready to meet the future? you think its great and beautiful or.....?
please give your feedback to my email
pooyanaghshbandi@yahoo.com
i am starting to write a critical and fantastic review article about CRISPR, if you are interested to join please contact me.
CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) is a family of DNA sequences found within the genomes of prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria and archaea. These sequences are derived from DNA fragments of bacteriophages that have previously infected the prokaryote and are used to detect and destroy DNA from similar phages during subsequent infections. Hence these sequences play a key role in the antiviral defense system of prokaryotes.
Cas9 (CRISPR-associated protein 9) is an enzyme that uses CRISPR sequences as a guide to recognize and cleave specific strands of DNA that are complementary to the CRISPR sequence. Cas9 enzymes together with CRISPR sequences form the basis of a technology known as CRISPR-Cas9 that can be used to edit genes within organisms.This editing process has a wide variety of applications including basic biological research, development of biotechnology products, and treatment of diseases.
The CRISPR-Cas system is a prokaryotic immune system that confers resistance to foreign genetic elements such as those present within plasmids and phages that provides a form of acquired immunity. RNA harboring the spacer sequence helps Cas (CRISPR-associated) proteins recognize and cut foreign pathogenic DNA. Other RNA-guided Cas proteins cut foreign RNA. CRISPR are found in approximately 50% of sequenced bacterial genomes and nearly 90% of sequenced archaea.
Genome editing with the CRISPR-Cas9 system has become one of the major tools in modern biotechnology. This slide share discusses the fundamentals in a simple, easy to understand format.
The CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)–Cas9 (CRISPR-associated nuclease 9), a genome editing system adapted from the bacterial immune mechanism that is poised to transform genetic engineering by providing a simple, efficient and economical method to precisely manipulate the genome of any organism. Compared with zinc finger nucleases (ZFN) and transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALEN), CRISPR/Cas9 is simpler with higher specificity and less toxicity. This RNA-guided nuclease (RGN)-based approach has been effectively used to induce targeted mutations(knock in or knock out) in multiple genes simultaneously, create conditional alleles, and generate endogenously tagged proteins.It has a wide variety of applications such as gene therapy, gene expression regulation, genome wide functional screening, virus resistance, transgenic animal production, site specific DNA integration etc. In the future CRISPR/Cas9 technology will play a significant role in innovating the life science research and industrial fields.
CRISPR-Cas9 is a genome editing tool that is creating a buzz in the science world. It is faster, cheaper and more accurate than previous techniques of editing DNA and has a wide range of potential applications.
Crispr-Cas9 system works on the concept of bacterial defence mechanism. The idea of which was replicated in eukaryotic cell in in- vitro condition by the researchers.
The next generation of crispr–cas technologies and Applicationsiqraakbar8
The prokaryote-derived CRISPR–Cas genome editing systems have transformed our ability to manipulate, detect, image and annotate specific DNA and RNA sequences in living cells of diverse species. The ease of use and robustness of this technology have revolutionized genome editing for research ranging from fundamental science to translational medicine. Initial successes have inspired efforts to discover new systems for targeting and manipulating nucleic acids, including those from Cas9, Cas12, Cascade and Cas13 orthologues.
CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) is a family of DNA sequences found within the genomes of prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria and archaea. These sequences are derived from DNA fragments of bacteriophages that have previously infected the prokaryote and are used to detect and destroy DNA from similar phages during subsequent infections. Hence these sequences play a key role in the antiviral defense system of prokaryotes.
Cas9 (CRISPR-associated protein 9) is an enzyme that uses CRISPR sequences as a guide to recognize and cleave specific strands of DNA that are complementary to the CRISPR sequence. Cas9 enzymes together with CRISPR sequences form the basis of a technology known as CRISPR-Cas9 that can be used to edit genes within organisms.This editing process has a wide variety of applications including basic biological research, development of biotechnology products, and treatment of diseases.
The CRISPR-Cas system is a prokaryotic immune system that confers resistance to foreign genetic elements such as those present within plasmids and phages that provides a form of acquired immunity. RNA harboring the spacer sequence helps Cas (CRISPR-associated) proteins recognize and cut foreign pathogenic DNA. Other RNA-guided Cas proteins cut foreign RNA. CRISPR are found in approximately 50% of sequenced bacterial genomes and nearly 90% of sequenced archaea.
Genome editing with the CRISPR-Cas9 system has become one of the major tools in modern biotechnology. This slide share discusses the fundamentals in a simple, easy to understand format.
The CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)–Cas9 (CRISPR-associated nuclease 9), a genome editing system adapted from the bacterial immune mechanism that is poised to transform genetic engineering by providing a simple, efficient and economical method to precisely manipulate the genome of any organism. Compared with zinc finger nucleases (ZFN) and transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALEN), CRISPR/Cas9 is simpler with higher specificity and less toxicity. This RNA-guided nuclease (RGN)-based approach has been effectively used to induce targeted mutations(knock in or knock out) in multiple genes simultaneously, create conditional alleles, and generate endogenously tagged proteins.It has a wide variety of applications such as gene therapy, gene expression regulation, genome wide functional screening, virus resistance, transgenic animal production, site specific DNA integration etc. In the future CRISPR/Cas9 technology will play a significant role in innovating the life science research and industrial fields.
CRISPR-Cas9 is a genome editing tool that is creating a buzz in the science world. It is faster, cheaper and more accurate than previous techniques of editing DNA and has a wide range of potential applications.
Crispr-Cas9 system works on the concept of bacterial defence mechanism. The idea of which was replicated in eukaryotic cell in in- vitro condition by the researchers.
The next generation of crispr–cas technologies and Applicationsiqraakbar8
The prokaryote-derived CRISPR–Cas genome editing systems have transformed our ability to manipulate, detect, image and annotate specific DNA and RNA sequences in living cells of diverse species. The ease of use and robustness of this technology have revolutionized genome editing for research ranging from fundamental science to translational medicine. Initial successes have inspired efforts to discover new systems for targeting and manipulating nucleic acids, including those from Cas9, Cas12, Cascade and Cas13 orthologues.
This presentation highlights the basics and application of genome editing strategies in plants, strategies to reduce off-target mutation, identification of mutant analysis etc.
An Introduction to Crispr Genome Editing
Crispr cas: A new tool of genome editing
CRISPRs (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) are part of an adaptive defense mechanism in bacteria and archaea. Use of the CRISPR/Cas9 system for genome editing has been a major technological breakthrough, making genome modification in cells or organisms fast, more efficient, and much more robust than previous genome editing methods. Single guide RNAs (sgRNAs) or guide RNAs (gRNAs) direct and activate the Cas9 endonuclease at a specific genomic sequence. Cas9 then cleaves the target DNA, making it available for repair by the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) system or for creating an insertion site for exogenous donor DNA by homologous recombination.
Introduction, History, components, cas9 protein structure and function,gRNA variants, Cas9 nuclease variants, CRISPR in bacteria as the immune system, mechanism, steps of working, Applications, and pros and cons.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
1. CRISPR Cas editing mechanism
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats
CRIPSR associated protein 9
2. 1987 2002 2005 2006 2008 2010 2012 2013 2014 2016 2017 2019 2020
Nakata and
colleagues
discovered
repeat and non-
repeat
sequences
downstream of
iap gene.
Repeat arrays
were given the
name CRISPR.
Mojica and
colleagues that
“spacers”
contain DNA
from
bacteriophages.
Bolotin et.al
observed the
presence of
endonuclease.
Koonin et al.
proposed that
spacers
produce short
RNA guides.
Upstream of
“protospacers”,
conserved
motifs called
PAM are target
sites for Cas
endonucleases.
Three CRISPR
systems had
been
identified in
bacteria:
Type I, II, III.
Dr. Jennifer
Doudna and Dr.
Emmanauel
Charpentier
published that
CRISPR Cas9 could
be programmed
with RNA to edit
genomic DNA.
The use of
CRISPR began in
StCas and
SpCas9 could be
engineered to
edit mammalian
genomes.
The first
patent of
CRISPR-Cas9,
specific to
plant and
animal cells.
The first application
of CRISPR gene
editing in clinical
treatment.
Development of
base editing
technology.
The CRISPR
Cas9 is used for
the first time to
modify the
beta-globin
gene in human
embryo.
Development
of prime
editing
technology.
A US trial
safely
showed
CRISPR gene
editing on
three cancer
patient.
Timeline of CRISPR
3. Introduction
A CRISPR/Cas9, works like a biological version of a word-processing programme’s “find and replace”.
How the technique works
A cell is transfected with an enzyme
complex containing:
Guide molecule, Healthy DNA copy,
DNA cutting enzyme.
Guide molecule finds the
target DNA strand.
An enzyme cuts off the
target DNA strand.
The defective DNA
strand is replaced with
a healthy copy.
Two important advantages
of CRISPR Cas9 system are:
1) It has remarkable versatility
when it comes to working in
cells as well as directly in the
embryos of multiple species.
2) Its simplicity and extremely low
cost of implementation.
Two essential components:
Guide RNA – to match desire
target gene
Cas9 – endonuclease which break
ds DNA and allow modification to
genome
Figure 1: Image credit: Biorender
4. Figure 2: Cas9 protein. It has six domains: Rec I, Rec II, Bridge Helix, RuvC, HNH and PAM
interacting. Domains are shown in schematic, crystal, and map form.
Cas9
Rec I: the largest and responsible for binding of guide RNA.
Rec II: role is not understood yet.
Bridge Helix: Arginine rich and crucial for initiating cleavage
activity upon binding of target DNA.
PAM interacting: confers PAM specificity and responsible
for initiating for binding to target DNA.
HNH and RuvC: nuclease domains that cut single stranded
DNA.
Guide RNA (gRNA)
Figure 3: Engineered Guide RNA. It is single strand RNA. It forms one tetraloop and and two
or three stem loops.
In engineered CRISPR systems, guide RNA is compromised of
single strand that forms T-shape compromise of one tetra loop
and two or three stem loops.
It have a 5’ end that is complementary to target DNA
sequence.
The Cas9 protein remains “inactive” in absence of the guide RNA.
CRISPR RNA(crRNA) and trans activating CRISPR RNA(tracrRNA)
forms a complex known as gRNA.
5. Transcription
of pre-crRNA
and tracrRNA
Binding of
tracrRNA to
pre-crRNA
Cleavage
of guide
RNA from
pre-crRNA
Formation
of active
Cas9
Transcription
of guide RNA
as a single
sequence
Transcription
and
translation
of Cas9
nuclease
Formation
of active
Cas9
How Cas9 is activated
6. Figure 4: Activation of Cas9 protein by guide RNA binding. Due to conformational change in Cas9
activation of Cas9 nuclease activity.
Figure 5: Target DNA binding and cleavage by Cas9.
Once the Cas9 protein gets activated, it stochastically searches for
target DNA and bind with sequences that matches its PAM sequence.
1) Cas9 scans potential target DNA for the appropriate PAM.
2) When the proteins finds the PAM, the protein-guide RNA complex
will melt the bases immediately upstream of the PAM and pair
them with target complimentary region on the gRNA.
3) If the complimentary region and target region pair properly,
the RuvC and HNH nuclease domains will cut the target DNA after
the third nucleotide base upstream of the PAM.
Cas9 mechanism
Rec I and Rec II bind the
complimentary region of
gRNA.
PAM Interacting and
RuvC bind at stem loops
on gRNA.
7. DNA binding and Cleavage
PAM dependent target DNA binding, melting and recognition by Cas9
1) PAM binding: Arginine residues R1333 and R1335 of PI domain bind to
major groove of Guanine in PAM and lysine residue in Phosphate lock
loop binds to minor groove.
2) Phosphate lock loop: Positions the PAM and target DNA such that
serine 1109 in PLL, and two N of PLL can form H-bonds to phosphate at
position +1 of the PAM.
3) Guide RNA: Target DNA will unzip as the bases flip up and bind gRNA.
The initial PAM binding and stabilization of +1P the gRNA would not be
able to bind to target DNA and Cas9 would be inefficient. It shows high
efficiency and specificity of Cas9.
4) Cleavage: HNH and RuvC cleave between 3 and 4 nucleotides from
PAM. Nucleases cleave individually without affecting ability of Cas9,
which makes CRISPR power fool and flexible genome editing tool.
8. CRISPR methods and techniques
CRISPR gene knock in
CRISPR gene knock out
CRISPRa and CRISPRi
CRISPR screen
Transcription Regulation
9. CRISPR KO/KI
If Cas9 creates a DSB, it will most likely be repaired by
NHEJ. However, NHEJ is error-prone, and it usually results
in insertions and deletions (indels) in the region being
repaired.
When indels occur within the coding region of a gene
and result in a frameshift mutation, the gene becomes
non-functional. This is known as a gene knockout (KO).
In the presence of a DSB induced by Cas9, cells can also
repair themselves via HDR, and this pathway offers an
opportunity for researchers to insert a new piece of DNA
or an entire gene. This method is known as a gene knock-
in.
10.
11. CRISPR Screen
What is CRISPR screening?
CRISPR screening is a large-scale experimental approach used to screen a
population of mutant cells to discover genes involved in a specific phenotype.
How does CRISPR screening works?
The basic idea of CRISPR screening is to knock out every gene that could be
important, although knock out only one gene per cell
Negative and Positive screens
Drug resistance and drug sensitivity are two of the major physiological responses
that are frequently studied by CRISPR screening (Figure 1). Negative screens are
used to find genes that cause drug resistance, and positive screens are used to
find genes that cause drug sensitivity.
12.
13. CRISPRa – CRISPR Activation CRISPRi – CRISPR Interference
CRISPR/Cas9
CRISPRa CRISPRi
dCas9
Still target specific DNA
location
Incapable to cut DNA
14. CRISPR activation or CRISPRa is a variant of CRISPR in which
a catalytically dead (d) Cas9 is fused with a transcriptional
effector to modulate target gene expression.
Once the guide RNA navigates to the genome locus along
with the effector arm, the dCas9 is unable to make a cut,
and instead, the effector activates the downstream gene
expression.
CRISPR interference or CRISPRi is also a variant of
CRISPR in which a catalytically dead (d) Cas9 is fused
with a transcriptional effector to modulate target gene
expression.
However, in CRISPRi, when guide RNA navigates to the genome locus along with the effector arm, it represses the
downstream gene expression instead of activating it.
15. Transcription repression by CRISPRi
The utility of dCas9 for sequence-specific gene repression was first demonstrated
in E. coli as a technology called CRISPR interference (CRISPRi). By pairing dCas9
with a sequence-specific sgRNA, the dCas9–sgRNA complex can interfere with
transcription elongation by blocking RNA polymerase (Pol) .In bacteria, the
CRISPRi method using dCas9 is highly efficient in suppressing genes; is specific,
with minimal off-target effect.
The introduction of CRISPRi into mammalian cells using dCas9 alone achieved
only modest repression of enhanced GFP (egfp) in the human HEK293T reporter
cell line.
When targeting endogenous genes such as the transferrin receptor CD71, C-X-C
chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) and tumour protein 53 (TP53), up to 80%
repression was observed.
To achieve enhanced repression, the Krüppel-associated box (KRAB), was fused
to the carboxyl terminus of dCas9. Together with a target-specific sgRNA, the
dCas9–KRAB fusion proteins can efficiently repress endogenous genes.
. This repression was further enhanced by fusing KRAB to the amino terminus of
dCas9, leading to strong repression of endogenous genes. The level of dCas9- or
KRAB–dCas9-mediated knockdown of endogenous genes was highly dependent
on the sgRNA targeting site, suggesting that the chromatin structure or the
presence of regulatory elements may limit the level of repression.
16. Transcription activation by CRISPRa
CRISPRa, uses dCas9 fusion proteins to recruit transcription activators. A fusion of
dCas9 with the ω-subunit of the E. coli Poll allowed assembly of the holoenzyme at a
target promoter for gene activation in E. Coli.
The fusion of VP64 or of the p65 activation domain (p65AD) to dCas9 in mammalian
cells could activate both reporter genes and endogenous genes, with a single sgRNA.
However, the use of multiple sgRNAs was necessary to achieve significant activation of
the endogenous genes.
sgRNA engineering was also shown to enhance the efficiency of gene activation.
The recruitment of VP64 using protein-interacting RNA aptamers incorporated into the
sgRNA has achieved activation of the gene encoding endogenous zinc-finger protein
using multiple sgRNAs.
synergistic activation mediator (SAM) system, was achieved by adding MS2 aptamers
to the sgRNA; MS2 recruits its cognate MS2 coat protein (MCP) fused to p65AD and
heat shock factor 1.
The SAM technology, together with dCas9–VP64, further increased endogenous gene
activation compared with dCas9–VP64 alone and was shown to activate 10 genes
simultaneously.
17. Base editing & prime editing
Some of the most recently developed CRISPR methods are base editing and prime editing.
Base Editing:- Base editing uses either a catalytically dead Cas9 (dCas9) or a nickase Cas9 (nCas9). dCas9 is
incapable of cutting DNA, while nCas9 produces ‘nicks’, or single-stranded breaks (SSBs) in the DNA.
By fusing either dCas9 or nCas9 to a DNA modifying enzyme, researchers can alter specific nucleotides. One of the
limitations of base editing is that they cannot be used to alter every possible nucleotide.
And this is one of the factors that led to the development of prime editing.
Prime Editing:- Prime editing involves fusing nCas9 to an engineered reverse transcriptase and a prime editing
guide RNA (pegRNA). The pegRNA contains two sections: one that guides to the region of interest, and another
that contains the desired substitution/s for repair after the single-stranded cut has been generated.
After one strand has been altered by the prime editor, the complementary strand can also be corrected - an
additional gRNA and nCas9 will create a nick in the strand and it will be repaired using the previously edited strand
as a template.
Prime editing is predicted to be capable of treating 89% of genetic mutations in humans.
19. Role in Gene therapy
Gene therapy is the process of replacing the defective gene
with exogenous DNA and editing the mutated gene at its
native location.
CRISPR/Cas-9 gene editing has held the promise of curing
most of the known genetic diseases such as sickle cell
disease, β-thalassemia, cystic fibrosis, and muscular
dystrophy.
The genetic mutation of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane
conductance regulator (CFTR) gene decreases the structural
stability and function of CFTR protein leading to cystic
fibrosis.
In 2013, researchers culture intestinal stem cells from two
cystic fibrosis patients and corrected the mutation at the
CFTR locus resulting in the expression of the correct gene
and full function of the protein.
20. Schematic Illustration Showing Functional Repair of CFTR by CRISPR-Cas9 in
Intestinal Stem Cell Organoids Acquired from Patients with Cystic Fibrosis
Reproduced from Schwank et al. 2013.
21. Therapeutic role of CRISPR/Cas9
The first CRISPR-based therapy in the human trial was
conducted to treat patients with refractory lung cancer.
Researchers first extract T-cells from three patient’s blood
and they engineered them in the lab through CRISPR/Cas-9
to delete genes (TRAC, TRBC, and PD-1) that would interfere
to fight cancer cells.
Then, they infused the modified T-cells back into the
patients. The modified T-cells can target specific antigens
and kill cancer cells. Finally, no side effects were observed
and engineered T-cells can be detected up to 9 months of
post-infusion.
22. Drug Discovery
Screening for target sites
The CRISPR library can detect living cells with specific
conditions, such as drug therapy. By using the system,
researchers can identify genes and proteins that cause
or prevent disease, thereby identifying potential drug
targets.
Drug discovery
CRISPR/Cas9 animal models allow scientists to discovery
new drugs more accurately and verify the safety and
efficacy of the drugs, ensuring that these models better
predict what will happen in clinical trials. Up regulating
or down regulating gene activity using the CRISPR/Cas9
system is a subtle way of studying the importance of
genes and proteins that can be activated or inhibited by
drugs to treat disease.
23. Better Biofuel
The major drawbacks of biofuel production at the commercial level are its low yield, non-availability of
feedstock, feedback inhibition, presence of inhibitory pathways in various organisms, and biofuel
intolerance of organisms.
Gene knockout and gene cassette insertions employing CRISPR-
Cas9 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Kluyveromyces marxianus
have resulted in enhanced production of bioethanol in these
organisms, respectively.
CRISPR-Cas9 modification of microalgae has demonstrated improved total lipid content, a
prerequisite for biofuel production. All over, CRISPR-Cas9 has emerged as a tool of choice for
engineering the genome and metabolic pathways of organisms for producing industrial biofuel.
In plant-based biofuel production, the biosynthetic pathways of lignin interfere with the
satisfactory release of fermentable sugars thus hampering efficient biofuel production.
24. In Agriculture
Genome editing with CRISPR-Cas9 is amendable to edit
any gene in any plant species. Because of its simplicity,
efficiency, low cost, and the possibility to target multiple
genes, it allows faster genetic modification than other
techniques. It also can be used to genetically modify
plants that were previously neglected.
Impressive genetic modifications have been achieved
with CRISPR-Cas9 to enhance metabolic pathways,
tolerance to biotic (fungal, bacterial or viral pathogens),
or abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt), improve
nutritional content, increase yield and grain quality,
obtain haploid seeds, herbicide resistance, and others.
25. Generation of an Animal model
One of the most exciting applications of CRISPR-Cas9 is the generation of animal models for the
study of a variety of diseases.
Direct injection of Cas9 mRNA and sgRNA for gene editing of single cell embryos is a new
method for rapid establishment of animal models. This approach has been successfully applied
to the generation of animal models, such as mice, rats, monkeys, zebrafish and cattle.
In particular, transgenic animals can be changed more easily, faster and more efficiently. These
animal models may be important in vivo models for diseases, such as cancer, bone disease,
immunodeficiency disease and many other inherited human diseases.
A good example in the establishment of animal models for tumor
research was done on lung cancer by establishing a Cre-dependent
Cas9 knock in mice.
A prominent example in the study of cardiovascular disease is the
generation of transgenic mice with severe heart failure by using
AAV9 to transfer sgRNA targeting Myh6 locus of cardiomyopathy.
Furthermore, CRISPR-Cas9 system has also been used to establish
animal models of infectious disease like human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV), human papillomaviruses (HPV), and chronic hepatitis B
virus (HBV).
26. References
• https://www.synthego.com/learn/crispr
• https://sites.tufts.edu/crispr/crispr-mechanism
• http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0496
• CRISPR Manual: CRISPR Cas9 An introductory Guide for Gene knockout; https://www.abmgood.com
• What is CRISPR/Cas9?; https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301203306
• CRISPR Methods and Protocols: Editors, Magnus Lundgren, Emmanuelle Charpentier, Peter C. Fineran;
http://www.springer.com/series/7651
• https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211383521000113#bib37
• https://www.dovepress.com/mechanism-and-applications-of-crisprcas-9-mediated-genome-editing-peer-reviewed-
fulltext-article-BTT
27. Thank you
Presented by: Suchi Patel
Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology
St. Xavier’s College, Autonomous, Ahmedabad