1
Memory
Tiffany Daniels, M.S.
1
Let’s Start With a Memory
Challenge
• I’m going to read you a grocery list. Use
whatever memory strategies that you
think will be most effective to memorize
the items. When I am done, write down
as many items as you can remember.
You do not have to remember them in
order.
2
Key Terms
• Memory - The retention of information
over time through the processes of
encoding, storage, & retrieval.
• Encoding - Process by which
information gets into memory storage
• Storage - Retention of information over
time and the representation of
information in memory.
• Retrieval - The memory process of
taking information out of storage.
3
Encoding
• Requires selective attention
• Divided attention - occurs when a person
must attend to several things at once
• Selective/Sustained attention (focusing on
one thing for a prolonged period of time) is
better than divided attention in terms of
retrieval
4
Encoding
• Levels of Processing Model (Craik &
Lockhart 1972)
• Shallow level: The sensory of physical
features are analyzed.
• Intermediate level: The stimulus is
recognized and given a label.
• Deepest level: Information is processed
semantically, in terms of meaning.
5
“All I see is a bunch of ink on
this page! I’m so zoned out, I’m
not even making out the words!”
“I am reading the words but
I don’t understand it. I keep
reading the same line over
and over!”
“Not only do I understand
what I just read, but I can
apply it to myself, create
examples, and even share
what I learned with a friend!”
6
2
Encoding
• An individual’s memories are better if he or
she uses the deepest processing level.
• Memories are also better if using
elaboration when encoding.
• Elaboration: extensiveness of processing
at any given level of memory.
• Self-references, generating examples, and
using imagery are better than simple rote
memorization
7
Encoding
• Flashcards are a type of rote memorization –
how effective are they in the long term?
• It is also important to be motivated to
remember
• How easy is it to encode, store, and retrieve
information for your least favorite class?
8
Memory Storage
• The Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968)
• Storage involves 3 separate systems
• Sensory Memory: time frames of a fraction
of a second to several seconds
• Short-Term Memory (STM): time frames up
to 30 seconds
• Long Term Memory (LTM): time frames up
to a lifetime
9
Sensory Memory
• Includes:
• Iconic memory (visual sensory memory) -
we can remember things that quickly flash
before our eyes
• Echoic memory (auditory sensory memory)
- we can remember sounds after the fact,
even if we weren’t attending to them.
10
Short-Term Memory
• Capacity is 7 ± 2 (called “Miller’s Magical
Number)
• Means we can usually remember on
average, between 5-9 items in a list
(example: phone numbers, Social Sec. #)
• Can improve short-term memory by using
rehearsal and chunking.
11 ...
1
Memory
Tiffany Daniels, M.S.
1
Let’s Start With a Memory
Challenge
• I’m going to read you a grocery list. Use
whatever memory strategies that you
think will be most effective to memorize
the items. When I am done, write down
as many items as you can remember.
You do not have to remember them in
order.
2
Key Terms
• Memory - The retention of information
over time through the processes of
encoding, storage, & retrieval.
• Encoding - Process by which
information gets into memory storage
• Storage - Retention of information over
time and the representation of
information in memory.
• Retrieval - The memory process of
taking information out of storage.
3
Encoding
• Requires selective attention
• Divided attention - occurs when a person
must attend to several things at once
• Selective/Sustained attention (focusing on
one thing for a prolonged period of time) is
better than divided attention in terms of
retrieval
4
Encoding
• Levels of Processing Model (Craik &
Lockhart 1972)
• Shallow level: The sensory of physical
features are analyzed.
• Intermediate level: The stimulus is
recognized and given a label.
• Deepest level: Information is processed
semantically, in terms of meaning.
5
“All I see is a bunch of ink on
this page! I’m so zoned out, I’m
not even making out the words!”
“I am reading the words but
I don’t understand it. I keep
reading the same line over
and over!”
“Not only do I understand
what I just read, but I can
apply it to myself, create
examples, and even share
what I learned with a friend!”
6
2
Encoding
• An individual’s memories are better if he or
she uses the deepest processing level.
• Memories are also better if using
elaboration when encoding.
• Elaboration: extensiveness of processing
at any given level of memory.
• Self-references, generating examples, and
using imagery are better than simple rote
memorization
7
Encoding
• Flashcards are a type of rote memorization –
how effective are they in the long term?
• It is also important to be motivated to
remember
• How easy is it to encode, store, and retrieve
information for your least favorite class?
8
Memory Storage
• The Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968)
• Storage involves 3 separate systems
• Sensory Memory: time frames of a fraction
of a second to several seconds
• Short-Term Memory (STM): time frames up
to 30 seconds
• Long Term Memory (LTM): time frames up
to a lifetime
9
Sensory Memory
• Includes:
• Iconic memory (visual sensory memory) -
we can remember things that quickly flash
before our eyes
• Echoic memory (auditory sensory memory)
- we can remember sounds after the fact,
even if we weren’t attending to them.
10
Short-Term Memory
• Capacity is 7 ± 2 (called “Miller’s Magical
Number)
• Means we can usually remember on
average, between 5-9 items in a list
(example: phone numbers, Social Sec. #)
• Can improve short-term memory by using
rehearsal and chunking.
11 ...
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Cognitive Level of Analysis: Cognitive ProcessesMackenzie
These are my notes for the 3.1 section of my IB HL Psychology textbook. It focuses on the Cognitive Level of Analysis and cognitive processes, particularly memory. Beware: it's quite long, but I doubt I'll post any presentations longer than this one in the future.
این پاورپوینت در کارگاه تخصصی توانبخشی حافظه توسط دکتر فائزه دهقان ارائه شده است. برای دریافت اطلاعات بیشتر در مورد این کارگاه به وب سایت فروردین مراجعه فرمایید.
https://farvardin-group.com
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These are my notes for the 3.1 section of my IB HL Psychology textbook. It focuses on the Cognitive Level of Analysis and cognitive processes, particularly memory. Beware: it's quite long, but I doubt I'll post any presentations longer than this one in the future.
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2. Human Memory: Basic Questions
• How does information get into memory?
• How is information maintained in memory?
• How is information pulled back out of
memory?
• Memory timeline
– Short term – recent?
– Long term – remote?
– Operational definitions
4. And how do we get information from memory?
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Echoic memory
Iconic memory
Short-Term memory /
Working memory
Long-Term memory
7. A F 2 H
4 T U 7
M R 9 P
Sperling Task: Partial Report
A F 2 H
“4…T…U…?”
M R 9 P
♪
8. Sperling Task: Partial Report
A F 2 H
4 T U 7
M R 9 P
High tone
Low tone
Mid tone
3 of 4 = 75%
3 of 4 = 75%
3 of 4 = 75%
.75*12 = 9 items
Claim:
Participants must have been equally
prepared to report any of three rows
12. Short Term Memory
Attention moves information from the sensory systems
into short-term memory for further processing.
13. What is attention?
• “At any given moment, people’s awareness encompasses
only a tiny portion of the stimuli impinging on their
sensory systems” (Pashler, 1998).
• “The taking possession of the mind, in clear and vivid
form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously
possible objects or trains of thought. Focalisation,
concentration, and consciousness are of its essence. It
implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal
effectively with others” (William James, 1890).
• Focused attention
• Divided attention
– d
14. • Goal directed attention
– Top-down processing
– Dorsal fronto – parietal network
• Stimulus driven attention
– Bottom-up processing
– Ventral fronto - parietal
network
Attentional Systems
15. Spotlight Metaphor of Attention
• Fixed Diameter
– Shifting attention requires moving the spotlight
• Illuminates a portion of the sensory field
• Increased load contracts field
16. Zoom-Lens Metaphor of
Attention
• Variable Diameter
– Field can be expanded or contracted
– Rate of processing inversely related to size of
focus
23. Divided vs. Skill-Focused Attention
• Novices & the less-proficient foot for experts
benefit from on-line attentional monitoring of
step-by-step performance, BUT high-level skill
execution is harmed! Beilock et al. (2002)
24. Automatic Processing
• occurs without intention
• doesn’t give rise to conscious awareness
• doesn’t interfere with other mental activities
25. Short Term Memory
A temporary store for holding small amount of information
in mind in an active, readily available state.
31. Judgment of Learning (JOL): estimates of
how well one has learned something
Nelson and Dunlosky (1991)
32. Working Memory
• System involved in holding information in mind
needed to complete complex tasks in the face of
interfering processes and distractions
• Composed of three components
– Central executive
– Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
– Phonological loop
33. Working Memory
Components
• Visuospatial Sketchpad
– Image representation
• Phonological Loop
– Verbal representation
• Episodic Buffer
– General store
• Central Executive
– Directs attention/information
34. Working Memory
Characteristics
• Domain specificity
– Separable forms of processing
• Word length effect
– Domain specific disruption
• Articulatory suppression
• Brooks (1968) V-S: “yes” or point
• Resource Limited (source of individual differences)
35. Working Memory
Characteristics
• Domain specificity
– Separable forms of processing
• Word length effect
– Domain specific disruption
• Articulatory suppression
• Brooks (1968) V-S: “yes” or point
• Resource Limited (source of individual differences)
37. Working Memory
The Phono Loop and V-S Sketchpad
separable but work together
– DUAL CODE THEORY (Paivio, 1975)
38. Working Memory
Resource Limited (source of individual differences)
• State differences
– Situational demands can reduce amount of WM resources
available
• Trait differences
– Some individuals generally have more WM resources to
work with
• Emphasis is on limits in attention not # items stored
39. Measuring Working Memory
(12*5) – 3 = 24?
E
(4*8) -9 = 38
P
Recall?
T AG
W D E
(12*5) – 3 = 24?
E
(4*8) -9 = 38
P
Recall?
T AG
W D E
Complex SpanSimple Span
40. Working Memory
Is WM important? YES!
WM Predicts: reading comprehension, math
problem solving, vigilance, multi-tasking,
distractibility and fluid intelligence
Also associated with optimistic thinking, emotion
regulation, self control and happiness… and
more!
43. Levels of Consciousness
• Conscious Level = Controlled
• Nonconscious Level
• Preconscious Level
• Unconscious Level
• So what about the Subconscious
Level?
Implicit/
Automatic
44. Mere Exposure
She poured him a cup of tea and offered a slice of ____.
BUT_ _ _
Word or non-word?
• SIGN – FORK
• DXMZ – FORK
• SPOON – FORK
PRIMING
Levels of Consciousness:
Implicit
49. Effect of Previous Knowledge
• “The individual pushed the bell.”
match mismatch
50. Effect of Previous Knowledge
• “The hockey player prepared for the pass.”
match mismatch
51. ‘Explaining’ the Dissociation between
Implicit & Explicit
• Hypothesis 1: The different types of implicit learning all
share a common learning mechanism.
• Hypothesis 2: The only real commonality between the
different types of implicit learning is the absence of
episodic learning – Baddeley likes this view.
– Episodic learning: a system that glues together events that
we experience at the same time.
