This document discusses different types of long-term memory (LTM), including procedural and declarative memory. Procedural memory involves skills and habits, while declarative memory involves facts and personal experiences. It also discusses the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval of memories. Encoding can occur automatically through exposure or through more effortful processing like rehearsal. The level of processing at encoding affects how well information is remembered later, with deeper semantic processing leading to stronger memories. Context also influences memory, as recall is better when the retrieval context matches the original encoding context.

1. Long-term Memory

3. Distinctions Between LTM and
STM

4. Types of LTM
• Procedural (nondeclarative) memory - type of long-term memory including memory for skills,
procedures, habits, and conditioned responses. These memories are not conscious but are implied
to exist because they affect conscious behavior.
• Declarative memory – type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and
known (memory for facts).

5. Procedural (Nondeclarative) LTM
• Skills that people know how to do.
• Also include emotional associations, habits, and simple conditioned reflexes that may or may not
be in conscious awareness.
• Anterograde amnesia - loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability
to form new long-term memories. Usually does NOT affect procedural LTM.
• Procedural memory often called implicit memory - memory that is not easily brought into
conscious awareness.

6. Declarative LTM
• All the things that people know.
• Semantic memory - type of declarative memory containing general knowledge, such as knowledge
of language and information learned in formal education.
• Episodic memory - type of declarative memory containing personal information not readily
available to others, such as daily activities and events.
• Semantic and episodic memories are forms of explicit memory - memory that is consciously
known.

8. Memory and Its
Processes
• Memory - an active system that receives information from the senses,
organizes and alters it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the
information from storage.
• Processes of Memory:
• Encoding - the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that
information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems.
• Storage - holding onto information for some period of time.
• Retrieval - getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used.

9. Two ways to encode
information
Automatic Processing
Effortful Processing

10. Automatic Processing
• Unconscious encoding of incidental information.
• You encode space, time and word meaning without
effort.
• Things can become automatic with practice.

11. Things to remember about Encoding
1. The next-In-Line effect: we seldom remember what the person has just said
or done if we are next.
2. Information minutes before sleep is seldom remembered; in the hour before
sleep, well remembered.
3. Taped info played while asleep is registered by ears, but we do not
remember it.

12. Effortful Processing
• Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
• Rehearsal is the most common effortful processing technique.
• Through enough rehearsal, what was effortful becomes automatic.

13. Repetition
Massed repetition: involves repeated representations that occur closely
together in time
Distributed repetition: involves repeated representations spread out over
time.

14. Spacing Effect
•We encode better when
we study or practice over
time.
•DO NOT CRAM!!!!!

16. Craik and Lockhart (1972)
• Proposed an alternative to structural models of memory, focussing instead on memory processes.
• They suggested that information can be processed at different levels, and that the way in which
memory is processed can affect the likelihood of it being retrieved in the future.

17. Depth of encoding
• Depending on what we do with information at the time of encoding,
processing can be shallow and superficial, or deeper and more
meaningful.
• Craik and Lockhart argued that deeper levels of processing result in more
long lasting and more retrievable memories, whereas shallow levels of
processing result in memories that are less long-lasting and less likely to
be retrieved.

18. Types of Encoding
• Semantic Encoding: the encoding
of meaning, like the meaning of
words
•Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of
sound, especially the sounds of words.
•Visual Encoding: the encoding of
picture images.

19. Tasks that require different levels of
processing
Structural: Is this word in capital letters?
Phonological: Does this word rhyme with Toy?
Semantic: Does this word fit in the following sentence? The ______ ran ahead of the group.
BOY

20. Craik & Lockhart – 2 types of rehearsal:
Maintenance Rehearsal
• uses articulatory loop
• simply saying words over and over
Elaborative Rehearsal
• uses the meaning of the object or event
• requires establishing associations
Levels of Processing theory

21. Which type works best?

22. The effect of context: encoding
specificity
• Recall is better if retrieval context is similar to the encoding context.
• Geiselman & Glenny(1977):
presented list of words and asked to imagine each of words as being
spoken by a familiar person(female or male voice)
recognition task: tested by having either male or female speaker to say
each word.

23. Female encoding
condition
Male encoding
condition
Female retrieval
condition
male retrieval
condition
57%
50%
50%
59%

24. Retrieval processes in memory
• Accessibility and availability:
Tulving and Pearlstone (1966) all that is available is not accessible.

25. Role of retrieval cues
• Internal and external retrieval cues.
• Free recall vs cued recall.
Category name followed by list of names.
Better recall under cued recall than under free recall.

26. • The more the retrieval cues the better is recall.
• Tulving(1985):
• Presented category name followed by exemplar: musical instrument- violin
• Three types of memory tests:
• Free recall
• Cued recall(a) musical instrument ----------
• Cued recall (b) musical instrument V_______

27. Encoding specificity.
• Memory depends upon degree of overlap between what is happening at retrieval and what
happened at the encoding.
• Tulving et al.
• Plant- bug(target)
• Test: free recall
• insect----
• plant--------

28. Extensions of encoding specificity:
• 1)context dependent effects: better memory output if context during
encoding and retrieval matches.

29. • 2) Place dependent memory: place( physical environment) match and
mismatch during encoding and retrieval have profound effect on retrieval.

31. What Memory Research Tells Us
About Studying
Elaborate and generate
Organize
Associate
Take breaks
Match learning and testing conditions