This document provides an overview of key concepts related to memory, cognition, and language. It discusses the main components of memory including encoding, storage, and retrieval. It also explains different memory systems like sensory memory and long-term memory. Regarding cognition, the document defines concepts, prototypes, heuristics, and algorithms. It also discusses problem solving, thinking biases, and creativity. Finally, it covers key aspects of language acquisition and development in children as well as theories of innate language abilities.
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to memory, cognition, and language. It discusses the main components of memory including encoding, storage and retrieval. It also explains different memory systems like sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. For cognition, it defines concepts and prototypes, and discusses problem solving techniques like algorithms and heuristics. It also covers biases and errors in judgment. For language, it defines key linguistic elements and outlines theories of language acquisition from infancy through childhood.
Psychology memory cognition language power pointTimothy Bradley
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to memory, cognition, and language. It discusses the main components of memory including encoding, storage and retrieval. It also explains different memory systems like sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. For cognition, it defines concepts and prototypes, and explains problem solving approaches like algorithms and heuristics. It also discusses language acquisition in infants and theories of an innate language acquisition device. Finally, it provides a brief overview of artificial intelligence and its attempts to simulate human thought.
1. Learning and memory are influenced by experience and the environment through various processes like classical and operant conditioning.
2. There are different types of memory like sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory that differ in duration and capacity. Factors like encoding, interference, and forgetting impact memory retention over time.
3. Techniques like spaced repetition, feedback, and relating new information to prior knowledge can enhance learning and memory according to principles of memory like the distribution of practice effect. Memory can also be impaired through brain damage or disorders.
Psychology Memory and Learning Power PointMrTimBradley
This document provides an overview of memory and learning concepts. It discusses the three stages of memory (encoding, storage, and retrieval). It describes the different types of memory like sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also discusses how learning occurs through classical and operant conditioning, and how cognitive factors like latent learning, cognitive maps, insight, learned helplessness, and observational learning impact the learning process. Key terms and concepts related to memory and different types of learning are defined and explained with examples.
General PsychologyChapter 8: Thinking and IntelligenceMostafa Ewees
1. Thinking involves not just remembering information but applying it by making decisions, solving problems, judging things, or creating things.
2. Concepts in our thoughts come from both natural experiences and artificial experiences based on rules. Concepts are often based on prototypes that represent general characteristics rather than specific examples.
3. Both automatic, habitual thinking and controlled, effortful thinking occur, but controlled thinking tends to lead to better outcomes through analyzing biases and considering multiple perspectives.
1. Hermann Ebbinghaus conducted early studies on memory using nonsense syllables and discovered the savings method, where relearning a list is faster the second time.
2. Memory follows a forgetting curve where most is lost within a day and continues slowly declining over time.
3. The multi-store model of memory includes sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, each with different capacities and durations. Information moves between stores through rehearsal and encoding.
Thinking, language, and intelligence involve complex interactions between mental representations like images and concepts, as well as environmental and genetic factors. Three key points:
1. Thinking manipulates mental representations like images and concepts, which are used to solve problems, make decisions, and use language.
2. Both genes and environment influence intelligence, as seen in twin studies, but their relationship is complex. Intelligence involves multiple abilities and is about 50% heritable.
3. While IQ scores can differ between groups, there is more variation within each group than between groups. Environmental factors like discrimination can negatively impact test scores more than genetic differences.
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to memory, cognition, and language. It discusses the main components of memory including encoding, storage and retrieval. It also explains different memory systems like sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. For cognition, it defines concepts and prototypes, and discusses problem solving techniques like algorithms and heuristics. It also covers biases and errors in judgment. For language, it defines key linguistic elements and outlines theories of language acquisition from infancy through childhood.
Psychology memory cognition language power pointTimothy Bradley
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to memory, cognition, and language. It discusses the main components of memory including encoding, storage and retrieval. It also explains different memory systems like sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. For cognition, it defines concepts and prototypes, and explains problem solving approaches like algorithms and heuristics. It also discusses language acquisition in infants and theories of an innate language acquisition device. Finally, it provides a brief overview of artificial intelligence and its attempts to simulate human thought.
1. Learning and memory are influenced by experience and the environment through various processes like classical and operant conditioning.
2. There are different types of memory like sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory that differ in duration and capacity. Factors like encoding, interference, and forgetting impact memory retention over time.
3. Techniques like spaced repetition, feedback, and relating new information to prior knowledge can enhance learning and memory according to principles of memory like the distribution of practice effect. Memory can also be impaired through brain damage or disorders.
Psychology Memory and Learning Power PointMrTimBradley
This document provides an overview of memory and learning concepts. It discusses the three stages of memory (encoding, storage, and retrieval). It describes the different types of memory like sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also discusses how learning occurs through classical and operant conditioning, and how cognitive factors like latent learning, cognitive maps, insight, learned helplessness, and observational learning impact the learning process. Key terms and concepts related to memory and different types of learning are defined and explained with examples.
General PsychologyChapter 8: Thinking and IntelligenceMostafa Ewees
1. Thinking involves not just remembering information but applying it by making decisions, solving problems, judging things, or creating things.
2. Concepts in our thoughts come from both natural experiences and artificial experiences based on rules. Concepts are often based on prototypes that represent general characteristics rather than specific examples.
3. Both automatic, habitual thinking and controlled, effortful thinking occur, but controlled thinking tends to lead to better outcomes through analyzing biases and considering multiple perspectives.
1. Hermann Ebbinghaus conducted early studies on memory using nonsense syllables and discovered the savings method, where relearning a list is faster the second time.
2. Memory follows a forgetting curve where most is lost within a day and continues slowly declining over time.
3. The multi-store model of memory includes sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, each with different capacities and durations. Information moves between stores through rehearsal and encoding.
Thinking, language, and intelligence involve complex interactions between mental representations like images and concepts, as well as environmental and genetic factors. Three key points:
1. Thinking manipulates mental representations like images and concepts, which are used to solve problems, make decisions, and use language.
2. Both genes and environment influence intelligence, as seen in twin studies, but their relationship is complex. Intelligence involves multiple abilities and is about 50% heritable.
3. While IQ scores can differ between groups, there is more variation within each group than between groups. Environmental factors like discrimination can negatively impact test scores more than genetic differences.
This document provides an overview of memory processes including encoding, storage and retrieval. It discusses the different types of memory like sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory and long-term memory. The document also examines factors that influence memory like forgetting, false memories, eyewitness testimony and the impact of culture on memory.
1. This document summarizes key concepts related to cognitive processes and memory, including models of memory like the multi-store model and theories of forgetting.
2. It describes research on memory conducted by pioneers like Ebbinghaus and covers topics such as encoding specificity, the context dependent nature of memory, and interference-based theories of forgetting.
3. Memory is explained as involving sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, and long-term memory is further divided into declarative and non-declarative memory according to Tulving's model.
3. Ask a friend who plays to grab a ball, bat, and glove and teach you. Hands-on learning through demonstration and practice is generally more effective for learning a new skill like playing softball than passive learning methods like reading or watching videos.
Psychology of Learning: Information Processing System & Attentionrachelhch
Information processing system
- assumptions
- two-store (dual) memory model
- 3 stores of memory
- alternatives to the two store model
Attention
- attention through senses
- theories of attention: dichotic listening, filter (bottleneck) theory, feature-integration theory, preattentive processes, attentive processes
Micro Video is Training - Learn How to Make the Most of It | Webinar 07.21.15BizLibrary
In this session, you’ll learn about some of the latest emerging neuroscience and behavioral science about how humans really learn. What the empirical data tells us is there are amazing connections between the reality of learning and video, especially micro-video. Some of what we think we know about human learning is simply mistaken.
We’ll go over actual case studies and the findings proving how results change when learning practices are tied to the realities of human learning.
In this session, we will go through some best practices tips and suggestions showing how you can leverage these amazing data-driven findings to improve the rates of employee learning in your organization, and by extension, drive ever higher levels of performance and business results.
www.bizlibrary.com
This document discusses memory, cognition, and thinking. It covers the stages of memory including encoding, storage and retrieval. It describes the different types of memory like sensory, short-term and long-term. It discusses theories of thinking such as creative, analytical and critical thinking. It also covers problem solving strategies and cognition. The goal is to understand memory, improve memory, understand thinking processes, and learn problem solving techniques.
این ارائه در کارگاه توانبخشی توجه از سری کارگاه های آخر هفته های شناختی توسط دکتر مهدی علیزاده تدریس شده است. برای مشاهده دیگر ارائه ها، به وب سایت فروردین به آدرس زیر مراجعه کنید:
www.farvardin-group.com
This document discusses strategies for optimizing memory acquisition based on current brain research. It explains that learning begins with attention, and input not attended to cannot become memory. The brain's reticular activating system acts as an involuntary filter that prioritizes novelty, perceived threats, and curiosity over other sensory input. Teachers can draw and sustain student attention through cues that promote curiosity and the ability to make accurate predictions. When students can correctly predict outcomes, it increases dopamine release and the pleasure response in the brain, reinforcing memory networks. The document provides strategies for reducing stress and promoting a growth mindset in students, including setting meaningful goals and providing frequent, incremental feedback. It emphasizes the importance of pattern-matching and activating prior knowledge to successfully encode
Cognitive learning theory focuses on mental processes and structures that occur as people make sense of the world. It explains learning as a change in mental structures that allows for different behaviors, rather than just a change in observable behavior. Learners are active constructors of knowledge who relate new information to what they already know in order to understand it. Learning involves changes in domain-specific and general knowledge stored in long-term memory through cognitive processes that operate on information held in working memory.
Attention allows us to focus our mental resources on important stimuli while ignoring others. It can be focused on a single object or divided among multiple objects. Two traditional forms are focused attention, concentrating on one thing, and divided attention, sharing mental resources among concurrent activities. Selection and organization are key perceptual processes in attention that help determine what we perceive. Feature detectors in the brain aid selection by responding only to certain sensory information. Selective attention allows filtering out irrelevant stimuli. The spotlight and zoom lens are common metaphors for how attention operates. Divided attention and automatic unconscious processes are also important aspects of attention.
Information processing model - michae gabanymgabany
The document discusses the information processing model of learning. It describes how information is received through the senses and processed in different components of memory, such as sensory registers and short term memory. It discusses factors that can influence how information is perceived and attended to, such as past experiences and motivation. Various memory techniques are also presented, such as rehearsal and creating mental images to link information in short term memory.
Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information over time. There are different types of memory including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Thinking allows people to model the world and deal with it according to their goals through processes like problem solving and decision making. Thinking can be associative like daydreaming or directed toward a goal. Intelligence refers to abilities like reasoning, learning from experience, and adapting to the environment. Theories of intelligence propose it involves multiple capacities like interpersonal skills and logical-mathematical abilities.
The document provides information on how to improve memory through various techniques. It discusses the different types of memory including sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory, declarative memory, and procedural memory. It then outlines several methods that can be used to improve memory, such as paying attention, rehearsal, organization, chunking, exercise, diet, note-taking, social interaction, and linking memories to scents. Meditation, positive thinking, and exposure to nature are also recommended for enhancing memory abilities.
This document discusses cognition and its components. It defines cognition as the highly evolved functions of the brain that allow humans to know and understand. The main components of cognition are consciousness, attention, orientation, speech and language, and memory. It describes each of these components in detail. It also discusses differences between left and right hemispheres of the brain and how they contribute to various cognitive functions like language, creativity, logic, and perception. Finally, it emphasizes the importance of working memory and encoding for new learning and improving performance.
Virtual Reality | VR in Education | Instructional Design for VRHugh Seaton
1. VR can improve training and learning for novices through experiential learning, but may not benefit experts or factual learning as much. High presence VR engages users but can also distract from content if overstimulating.
2. Creating a sense of embodiment and co-presence through matching user movements to their virtual avatar and natural responses from others increases engagement. Signs of sentience like motion and voice are more important than graphics quality.
3. Exposure to virtual environments and avatars can influence users' behaviors through the proteus effect. To avoid uncanny valley effects, avatars must react and move naturally while maintaining good visual quality.
Information Processing and Cognitive Theories of Learningyounes Anas
Cognitive information processing theory views learning through the lens of how information is processed in the human mind. It involves three main stages: [1] sensory memory, [2] short term memory, and [3] long term memory. Effective encoding strategies include note taking, summarizing, outlining, and constructing mental images. Retrieval depends on factors like organization of knowledge and acquisition of expertise over time through practice and motivation. Expert teachers utilize metacognition and self-regulatory strategies to help students monitor and improve their own learning.
VR in Education to ARNY Oct. 25th, 2016Hugh Seaton
Overview of research into VR and learning, presented at the monthly Augment Reality New York Meetup. We cover such things as "presence," the "proteus effect" and others.
Information processing & cognitive theories of learningjvirwin
Information processing and cognitive theories of learning focus on how people actively process and organize new information. According to these theories:
- People learn by building on their prior knowledge and experiences. New learning is connected to what is already known.
- How information is attended to, organized, rehearsed, and stored in memory impacts what is learned. Information must enter through the senses and be briefly held in sensory memory before being processed further.
- Short-term and working memory allow people to actively think about and manipulate new information for a brief period of time before it is either forgotten or consolidated into long-term memory through repetition and practice.
Memory is the ability to encode, store, and recall past experiences. It involves three main processes: encoding, where information is absorbed by the brain; storage, where memories are kept in the brain over time; and retrieval, where memories are recalled. There are several types of memory, including short-term/working memory for temporary recall, and long-term memory which is divided into declarative and non-declarative types. Many factors influence memory, including physical and mental health, motivation, the method of learning, and testing. Common techniques for improving memory include repetition, association, visualization, and the use of mnemonic devices.
1
Memory
Tiffany Daniels, M.S.
1
Let’s Start With a Memory
Challenge
• I’m going to read you a grocery list. Use
whatever memory strategies that you
think will be most effective to memorize
the items. When I am done, write down
as many items as you can remember.
You do not have to remember them in
order.
2
Key Terms
• Memory - The retention of information
over time through the processes of
encoding, storage, & retrieval.
• Encoding - Process by which
information gets into memory storage
• Storage - Retention of information over
time and the representation of
information in memory.
• Retrieval - The memory process of
taking information out of storage.
3
Encoding
• Requires selective attention
• Divided attention - occurs when a person
must attend to several things at once
• Selective/Sustained attention (focusing on
one thing for a prolonged period of time) is
better than divided attention in terms of
retrieval
4
Encoding
• Levels of Processing Model (Craik &
Lockhart 1972)
• Shallow level: The sensory of physical
features are analyzed.
• Intermediate level: The stimulus is
recognized and given a label.
• Deepest level: Information is processed
semantically, in terms of meaning.
5
“All I see is a bunch of ink on
this page! I’m so zoned out, I’m
not even making out the words!”
“I am reading the words but
I don’t understand it. I keep
reading the same line over
and over!”
“Not only do I understand
what I just read, but I can
apply it to myself, create
examples, and even share
what I learned with a friend!”
6
2
Encoding
• An individual’s memories are better if he or
she uses the deepest processing level.
• Memories are also better if using
elaboration when encoding.
• Elaboration: extensiveness of processing
at any given level of memory.
• Self-references, generating examples, and
using imagery are better than simple rote
memorization
7
Encoding
• Flashcards are a type of rote memorization –
how effective are they in the long term?
• It is also important to be motivated to
remember
• How easy is it to encode, store, and retrieve
information for your least favorite class?
8
Memory Storage
• The Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968)
• Storage involves 3 separate systems
• Sensory Memory: time frames of a fraction
of a second to several seconds
• Short-Term Memory (STM): time frames up
to 30 seconds
• Long Term Memory (LTM): time frames up
to a lifetime
9
Sensory Memory
• Includes:
• Iconic memory (visual sensory memory) -
we can remember things that quickly flash
before our eyes
• Echoic memory (auditory sensory memory)
- we can remember sounds after the fact,
even if we weren’t attending to them.
10
Short-Term Memory
• Capacity is 7 ± 2 (called “Miller’s Magical
Number)
• Means we can usually remember on
average, between 5-9 items in a list
(example: phone numbers, Social Sec. #)
• Can improve short-term memory by using
rehearsal and chunking.
11 ...
Memory can be explicit such as episodic (events) and semantic (facts) or implicit such as skills. It involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information. There are several stages and types of memory including sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. Information is processed at different levels from shallow to deep. Memories can be forgotten due to interference, lack of practice, or trauma that causes amnesia. The biology of memory involves structures like the hippocampus that is important for forming new memories.
This document provides an overview of memory processes including encoding, storage and retrieval. It discusses the different types of memory like sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory and long-term memory. The document also examines factors that influence memory like forgetting, false memories, eyewitness testimony and the impact of culture on memory.
1. This document summarizes key concepts related to cognitive processes and memory, including models of memory like the multi-store model and theories of forgetting.
2. It describes research on memory conducted by pioneers like Ebbinghaus and covers topics such as encoding specificity, the context dependent nature of memory, and interference-based theories of forgetting.
3. Memory is explained as involving sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, and long-term memory is further divided into declarative and non-declarative memory according to Tulving's model.
3. Ask a friend who plays to grab a ball, bat, and glove and teach you. Hands-on learning through demonstration and practice is generally more effective for learning a new skill like playing softball than passive learning methods like reading or watching videos.
Psychology of Learning: Information Processing System & Attentionrachelhch
Information processing system
- assumptions
- two-store (dual) memory model
- 3 stores of memory
- alternatives to the two store model
Attention
- attention through senses
- theories of attention: dichotic listening, filter (bottleneck) theory, feature-integration theory, preattentive processes, attentive processes
Micro Video is Training - Learn How to Make the Most of It | Webinar 07.21.15BizLibrary
In this session, you’ll learn about some of the latest emerging neuroscience and behavioral science about how humans really learn. What the empirical data tells us is there are amazing connections between the reality of learning and video, especially micro-video. Some of what we think we know about human learning is simply mistaken.
We’ll go over actual case studies and the findings proving how results change when learning practices are tied to the realities of human learning.
In this session, we will go through some best practices tips and suggestions showing how you can leverage these amazing data-driven findings to improve the rates of employee learning in your organization, and by extension, drive ever higher levels of performance and business results.
www.bizlibrary.com
This document discusses memory, cognition, and thinking. It covers the stages of memory including encoding, storage and retrieval. It describes the different types of memory like sensory, short-term and long-term. It discusses theories of thinking such as creative, analytical and critical thinking. It also covers problem solving strategies and cognition. The goal is to understand memory, improve memory, understand thinking processes, and learn problem solving techniques.
این ارائه در کارگاه توانبخشی توجه از سری کارگاه های آخر هفته های شناختی توسط دکتر مهدی علیزاده تدریس شده است. برای مشاهده دیگر ارائه ها، به وب سایت فروردین به آدرس زیر مراجعه کنید:
www.farvardin-group.com
This document discusses strategies for optimizing memory acquisition based on current brain research. It explains that learning begins with attention, and input not attended to cannot become memory. The brain's reticular activating system acts as an involuntary filter that prioritizes novelty, perceived threats, and curiosity over other sensory input. Teachers can draw and sustain student attention through cues that promote curiosity and the ability to make accurate predictions. When students can correctly predict outcomes, it increases dopamine release and the pleasure response in the brain, reinforcing memory networks. The document provides strategies for reducing stress and promoting a growth mindset in students, including setting meaningful goals and providing frequent, incremental feedback. It emphasizes the importance of pattern-matching and activating prior knowledge to successfully encode
Cognitive learning theory focuses on mental processes and structures that occur as people make sense of the world. It explains learning as a change in mental structures that allows for different behaviors, rather than just a change in observable behavior. Learners are active constructors of knowledge who relate new information to what they already know in order to understand it. Learning involves changes in domain-specific and general knowledge stored in long-term memory through cognitive processes that operate on information held in working memory.
Attention allows us to focus our mental resources on important stimuli while ignoring others. It can be focused on a single object or divided among multiple objects. Two traditional forms are focused attention, concentrating on one thing, and divided attention, sharing mental resources among concurrent activities. Selection and organization are key perceptual processes in attention that help determine what we perceive. Feature detectors in the brain aid selection by responding only to certain sensory information. Selective attention allows filtering out irrelevant stimuli. The spotlight and zoom lens are common metaphors for how attention operates. Divided attention and automatic unconscious processes are also important aspects of attention.
Information processing model - michae gabanymgabany
The document discusses the information processing model of learning. It describes how information is received through the senses and processed in different components of memory, such as sensory registers and short term memory. It discusses factors that can influence how information is perceived and attended to, such as past experiences and motivation. Various memory techniques are also presented, such as rehearsal and creating mental images to link information in short term memory.
Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information over time. There are different types of memory including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Thinking allows people to model the world and deal with it according to their goals through processes like problem solving and decision making. Thinking can be associative like daydreaming or directed toward a goal. Intelligence refers to abilities like reasoning, learning from experience, and adapting to the environment. Theories of intelligence propose it involves multiple capacities like interpersonal skills and logical-mathematical abilities.
The document provides information on how to improve memory through various techniques. It discusses the different types of memory including sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory, declarative memory, and procedural memory. It then outlines several methods that can be used to improve memory, such as paying attention, rehearsal, organization, chunking, exercise, diet, note-taking, social interaction, and linking memories to scents. Meditation, positive thinking, and exposure to nature are also recommended for enhancing memory abilities.
This document discusses cognition and its components. It defines cognition as the highly evolved functions of the brain that allow humans to know and understand. The main components of cognition are consciousness, attention, orientation, speech and language, and memory. It describes each of these components in detail. It also discusses differences between left and right hemispheres of the brain and how they contribute to various cognitive functions like language, creativity, logic, and perception. Finally, it emphasizes the importance of working memory and encoding for new learning and improving performance.
Virtual Reality | VR in Education | Instructional Design for VRHugh Seaton
1. VR can improve training and learning for novices through experiential learning, but may not benefit experts or factual learning as much. High presence VR engages users but can also distract from content if overstimulating.
2. Creating a sense of embodiment and co-presence through matching user movements to their virtual avatar and natural responses from others increases engagement. Signs of sentience like motion and voice are more important than graphics quality.
3. Exposure to virtual environments and avatars can influence users' behaviors through the proteus effect. To avoid uncanny valley effects, avatars must react and move naturally while maintaining good visual quality.
Information Processing and Cognitive Theories of Learningyounes Anas
Cognitive information processing theory views learning through the lens of how information is processed in the human mind. It involves three main stages: [1] sensory memory, [2] short term memory, and [3] long term memory. Effective encoding strategies include note taking, summarizing, outlining, and constructing mental images. Retrieval depends on factors like organization of knowledge and acquisition of expertise over time through practice and motivation. Expert teachers utilize metacognition and self-regulatory strategies to help students monitor and improve their own learning.
VR in Education to ARNY Oct. 25th, 2016Hugh Seaton
Overview of research into VR and learning, presented at the monthly Augment Reality New York Meetup. We cover such things as "presence," the "proteus effect" and others.
Information processing & cognitive theories of learningjvirwin
Information processing and cognitive theories of learning focus on how people actively process and organize new information. According to these theories:
- People learn by building on their prior knowledge and experiences. New learning is connected to what is already known.
- How information is attended to, organized, rehearsed, and stored in memory impacts what is learned. Information must enter through the senses and be briefly held in sensory memory before being processed further.
- Short-term and working memory allow people to actively think about and manipulate new information for a brief period of time before it is either forgotten or consolidated into long-term memory through repetition and practice.
Memory is the ability to encode, store, and recall past experiences. It involves three main processes: encoding, where information is absorbed by the brain; storage, where memories are kept in the brain over time; and retrieval, where memories are recalled. There are several types of memory, including short-term/working memory for temporary recall, and long-term memory which is divided into declarative and non-declarative types. Many factors influence memory, including physical and mental health, motivation, the method of learning, and testing. Common techniques for improving memory include repetition, association, visualization, and the use of mnemonic devices.
1
Memory
Tiffany Daniels, M.S.
1
Let’s Start With a Memory
Challenge
• I’m going to read you a grocery list. Use
whatever memory strategies that you
think will be most effective to memorize
the items. When I am done, write down
as many items as you can remember.
You do not have to remember them in
order.
2
Key Terms
• Memory - The retention of information
over time through the processes of
encoding, storage, & retrieval.
• Encoding - Process by which
information gets into memory storage
• Storage - Retention of information over
time and the representation of
information in memory.
• Retrieval - The memory process of
taking information out of storage.
3
Encoding
• Requires selective attention
• Divided attention - occurs when a person
must attend to several things at once
• Selective/Sustained attention (focusing on
one thing for a prolonged period of time) is
better than divided attention in terms of
retrieval
4
Encoding
• Levels of Processing Model (Craik &
Lockhart 1972)
• Shallow level: The sensory of physical
features are analyzed.
• Intermediate level: The stimulus is
recognized and given a label.
• Deepest level: Information is processed
semantically, in terms of meaning.
5
“All I see is a bunch of ink on
this page! I’m so zoned out, I’m
not even making out the words!”
“I am reading the words but
I don’t understand it. I keep
reading the same line over
and over!”
“Not only do I understand
what I just read, but I can
apply it to myself, create
examples, and even share
what I learned with a friend!”
6
2
Encoding
• An individual’s memories are better if he or
she uses the deepest processing level.
• Memories are also better if using
elaboration when encoding.
• Elaboration: extensiveness of processing
at any given level of memory.
• Self-references, generating examples, and
using imagery are better than simple rote
memorization
7
Encoding
• Flashcards are a type of rote memorization –
how effective are they in the long term?
• It is also important to be motivated to
remember
• How easy is it to encode, store, and retrieve
information for your least favorite class?
8
Memory Storage
• The Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968)
• Storage involves 3 separate systems
• Sensory Memory: time frames of a fraction
of a second to several seconds
• Short-Term Memory (STM): time frames up
to 30 seconds
• Long Term Memory (LTM): time frames up
to a lifetime
9
Sensory Memory
• Includes:
• Iconic memory (visual sensory memory) -
we can remember things that quickly flash
before our eyes
• Echoic memory (auditory sensory memory)
- we can remember sounds after the fact,
even if we weren’t attending to them.
10
Short-Term Memory
• Capacity is 7 ± 2 (called “Miller’s Magical
Number)
• Means we can usually remember on
average, between 5-9 items in a list
(example: phone numbers, Social Sec. #)
• Can improve short-term memory by using
rehearsal and chunking.
11 ...
Memory can be explicit such as episodic (events) and semantic (facts) or implicit such as skills. It involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information. There are several stages and types of memory including sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. Information is processed at different levels from shallow to deep. Memories can be forgotten due to interference, lack of practice, or trauma that causes amnesia. The biology of memory involves structures like the hippocampus that is important for forming new memories.
Eds 220 week 10 cognitive approach to learningEvrim Baran
The document discusses cognitive approaches to learning, including the information processing model of memory. It describes how information moves from sensory registers to short term and long term memory through encoding, storage, and retrieval processes. It discusses strategies like chunking, rehearsal, and elaboration that can aid remembering. It also addresses forgetting through time decay and interference over short and long terms.
This document provides an overview of memory and learning concepts. It begins by defining memory as the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. It then discusses the three main stages of memory - encoding, storage, and retrieval. It provides details on different memory systems like sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. The document also discusses concepts like explicit and implicit memories, recall versus recognition, and factors that influence memory like encoding techniques, interference, forgetting, and more. Finally, it discusses theories of learning including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and cognitive learning factors.
The document discusses information processing theory and its three main components: the sensory register, short-term memory (working memory), and long-term memory. It describes how information moves through these stages and can be encoded into long-term memory through strategies like chunking, rehearsal, imagery, and activating prior knowledge schemas. The document also discusses implications for the classroom, such as stating objectives, using outlines, and problem-solving techniques to help students effectively encode new information.
Memory is the faculty of retaining and recalling past experiences. It involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information over time. The traditional model of memory involves three stages - sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory holds information for less than one second, short-term memory for seconds to minutes, and long-term memory indefinitely. Factors like encoding strength, interference, and decay affect how information is forgotten over time.
Cognitive learning theory explains how the brain processes and interprets information during learning. Key cognitive learning models include:
- Gestalt model which views thinking as proceeding from the whole to parts.
- Ausubel model which focuses on verbal learning and meaning-making.
- Gagne model which identifies 5 types of learning and 9 levels of instruction.
- Bruner model which sees learning progressing from physical actions to images to symbolic thought.
Constructivism views learning as a self-regulated process where learners build on prior knowledge through active participation and social interaction. It encourages learner-centered activities and collaborative work.
The document provides an overview of cognitive processing theory and information processing models of memory. It discusses how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved from sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Encoding strategies like chunking, rehearsal, elaboration, and organization are described to help transfer information from short-term to long-term memory. Mnemonic devices like the method of loci and pegword method are also summarized as techniques to improve memory.
This document provides information about memory for physiotherapy and nursing students. It defines memory as the reproduction of past experiences without the presence of the original stimulus. It discusses the nature and types of memory, including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also covers factors that influence memory like age, intelligence, motivation, and sleep. Developmental theories of memory like the information processing theory are explained. Different methods for memorizing information are outlined, such as the spaced repetition method and chunking. Factors that can lead to forgetting, like interference and failed retrieval processes, are also described.
Hey guys, this is a really good overview of the Cognitive Perspective. It has all of the key concepts and theorists and what the theorists did in their research and how it contributed to cognition. It's good and plus its arranged into charts :)
This document summarizes several key models and processes of human memory. It describes memory as an active system involving encoding, storage, and retrieval. It discusses models such as the information processing model and levels of processing model. It outlines the different types of memory including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also describes concepts like encoding specificity, recognition vs recall, and factors that can influence the reliability of memory retrieval.
The cognitive approach focuses on how information is processed and how that affects behavior. Two key assumptions are that the brain processes information similar to a computer and that cognition and behavior result from information processing.
Theories discussed include levels of processing, which suggests deeper processing leads to better recall, and the multi-store model of memory, which proposes information moves between sensory, short-term, and long-term memory stores. Studies on levels of processing and context-dependent memory provide support for these theories but also have limitations like a lack of ecological validity. Forgetting can be explained by theories of displacement in short-term memory or cue-dependent retrieval from long-term memory.
1) Attention moves information from the sensory systems into short-term memory for further processing and focuses awareness by selectively attending to certain inputs.
2) There are two main types of long-term memory: declarative (explicit) memory which involves episodic and semantic memory, and non-declarative (implicit) memory which involves procedural memory, conditioning, priming and others.
3) Studies of amnesic patients like H.M. showed they could learn skills and exhibit priming effects despite an inability to consciously recall events, demonstrating the distinction between implicit and explicit long-term memory systems.
Cognitive Level of Analysis: Cognitive ProcessesMackenzie
This document discusses cognitive psychology and cognitive processes. It provides information on key topics including:
- The mind and cognition are based on mental representations and processes like perception, memory, language, and attention.
- Cognitive psychology studies how the human mind acquires and uses knowledge through cognitive processes and representations.
- Working memory models have evolved from a single-store model to include multiple components like the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad.
- Memory is reconstructive and influenced by schemas, which can lead to distortions. Eyewitness memory reliability has been questioned.
- Technology like PET scans and MRI scans have provided insights into brain activity during cognitive tasks.
The document discusses different aspects of memory including types of long-term memory such as declarative and non-declarative memory. It describes different models of conceptual knowledge including classical hierarchical models, prototype theory, and connectionist models. It also covers topics like priming, concepts, semantic networks, false memories, and forgetting.
Memory involves the brain's ability to recall information learned or experienced. There are three main steps to memory: acquisition, consolidation, and retrieval. Acquisition involves initially learning and storing information in temporary pathways. Consolidation strengthens these pathways over time through repetition, forming long-term memories. Retrieval occurs when the brain reactivates pathways to recall the stored information. Key areas of the brain like the hippocampus and amygdala are involved in processing and storing different types of memories. Focus, elaboration, repetition, sleep, and engaging multiple senses can help improve one's memory abilities.
This document discusses different types of memory including declarative and non-declarative memory. Declarative memory includes episodic memory for autobiographical experiences and semantic memory for general knowledge. Non-declarative memory includes procedural memory, classical conditioning, priming, and other forms of implicit learning. The hippocampus plays an important role in long-term memory consolidation while the prefrontal cortex is involved in retrieval and executive control processes related to memory. Forgetting can occur due to encoding failure, retrieval failure through interference or decay, or tip-of-the-tongue phenomena where retrieval cues are needed.
This document discusses different types of long-term memory (LTM), including procedural and declarative memory. Procedural memory involves skills and habits, while declarative memory involves facts and personal experiences. It also discusses the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval of memories. Encoding can occur automatically through exposure or through more effortful processing like rehearsal. The level of processing at encoding affects how well information is remembered later, with deeper semantic processing leading to stronger memories. Context also influences memory, as recall is better when the retrieval context matches the original encoding context.
This document discusses human memory and its stages. It describes memory as having three stages - encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding involves processing incoming information. Storage refers to retaining information over time. Retrieval involves recovering stored information. It also discusses models of memory like the Atkinson-Shiffrin model which describes sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Mechanisms of forgetting like trace decay and interference are also summarized.
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This document discusses suffixes and terminology used in medicine. It begins by listing common combining forms used to build medical terms and their meanings. It then defines several noun, adjective, and shorter suffixes and provides their meanings. Examples are given of medical terms built using combining forms and suffixes. The document also examines specific medical concepts in more depth, such as hernias, blood cells, acromegaly, splenomegaly, and laparoscopy.
The document is a chapter from a medical textbook that discusses anatomical terminology pertaining to the body as a whole. It defines the structural organization of the body from cells to tissues to organs to systems. It also describes the body cavities and identifies the major organs contained within each cavity, as well as anatomical divisions of the abdomen and back.
This document is from a textbook on medical terminology. It discusses the basic structure of medical words and how they are built from prefixes, suffixes, and combining forms. Some key points:
- Medical terms are made up of elements including roots, suffixes, prefixes, and combining vowels. Understanding these elements is important for analyzing terms.
- Common prefixes include hypo-, epi-, and cis-. Common suffixes include -itis, -algia, and -ectomy.
- Dozens of combining forms are provided, such as gastro- meaning stomach, cardi- meaning heart, and aden- meaning gland.
- Rules are provided for analyzing terms, such as reading from the suffix backward and dropping combining vowels before suffixes starting with vowels
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 25 on Cancer from the 6th edition of the textbook Molecular Cell Biology published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter was authored by a team that includes Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 24 on Immunology from the 6th edition of the textbook Molecular Cell Biology published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter was authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
Nerve cells, also known as neurons, are highly specialized cells that process and transmit information through electrical and chemical signals. This chapter discusses the structure and function of neurons, how they communicate with each other via synapses, and how signals are propagated along neurons through changes in their membrane potentials. Neurons play a vital role in the nervous system by allowing organisms to process information and coordinate their responses.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 22 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "The Molecular Cell Biology of Development" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 21 from the sixth edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Cell Birth, Lineage, and Death" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 20 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Regulating the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle" and is authored by a group of scientists including Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 19 from the 6th edition textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Integrating Cells into Tissues" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This chapter discusses microtubules and intermediate filaments, which are types of cytoskeletal filaments that help organize and move cellular components. Microtubules are involved in processes like cell division and intracellular transport, while intermediate filaments provide mechanical strength and help integrate the nucleus with the cytoplasm. Together, these filaments play important structural and functional roles in eukaryotic cells.
This chapter discusses microfilaments, which are one of the three main types of cytoskeletal filaments found in eukaryotic cells. Microfilaments are composed of actin filaments and play important roles in cell motility, structure, and intracellular transport. They allow cells to change shape and to move by contracting or extending parts of the cell surface.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 16 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Signaling Pathways that Control Gene Activity" and is authored by a group of scientists including Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 15 of the 6th edition textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira. It provides the chapter title "Cell Signaling I: Signal Transduction and Short-Term Cellular Responses" and notes the copyright is held by W. H. Freeman and Company in 2008.
This document is the copyright page for Chapter 14 from the 6th edition textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Vesicular Traffic, Secretion, and Endocytosis" and is authored by a group of scientists including Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh and Matsudaira.
This chapter discusses how proteins are transported into membranes and organelles within cells. Proteins destined for membranes or organelles have targeting signals that are recognized by transport systems. The transport systems then direct the proteins to their proper destinations, such as inserting membrane proteins into membranes or delivering soluble proteins into organelles.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 12 from the sixth edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Cellular Energetics" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
This chapter discusses the transmembrane transport of ions and small molecules across cell membranes. It covers topics such as passive transport through membrane channels and pumps, as well as active transport using ATP. The chapter is from the 6th edition of the textbook Molecular Cell Biology and is copyrighted by W. H. Freeman and Company in 2008.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 10, titled "Biomembrane Structure", from the sixth edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter was written by a team of authors including Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh and Matsudaira.
This document is the copyright information for Chapter 9 from the 6th edition of the textbook "Molecular Cell Biology" published in 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company. The chapter is titled "Visualizing, Fractionating, and Culturing Cells" and is authored by Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott, Bretscher, Ploegh, and Matsudaira.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
4. Take out a piece of paper…..
•Name the seven
dwarves…..
Now name them…..
5. Was it easy or hard?
• It may have depended on
several things….
• Have you ever seen the movie?
• Did you like the movie?
• When was the last time you
have seen the movie?
• Are you having difficulty
concentrating?
6. Explicit Memories
• the conscious, intentional recollection of previous
experiences and information.
• People use explicit memory throughout the day,
such as remembering the time of an appointment
or recollecting an event from years ago.
• Episodic Memories
– Specific Life Events
• Semantic Memories
– Facts, Words, Concepts
7. Implicit Memories
• a type of memory in which previous experiences aid
in the performance of a task without conscious
awareness of these previous experiences
• Procedural Memories
• Conditioned Memories
8. The Memory Process
1. Attention: (Many times this step is not included)
2. Encoding: The processing of information into the
memory system.
3. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.
4. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of
memory storage.
9. Encoding
• Encoding is translating sensory information into a
form in which it can be stored.
• Visual coding enables information to be stored as
pictures.
• Acoustic coding enables information to be stored
• as sounds.
• Semantic coding enables information to be stored as
meanings.
10. Storage
• Storage is the maintenance of encoded information
over time.
• Storage is achieved through two types of rehearsal:
– Maintenance rehearsal uses repetition to aid storage.
– Elaborative rehearsal aids storage by fitting new information
into an organizational system (giving meaning).
– Elaborative rehearsal is generally more secure than
maintenance rehearsal.
11. Memory Aids:
• Mnemonic Devices: techniques a person can use to
help them improve their ability to remember
something.
• Name mnemonics: ROY G. BIV = colors of the spectrum
(Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet.)
• Word/Expression mnemonics: Order of the Planets
• "Mary Very Easily Makes Jam Saturday Unless No Plums."
• Ode/Rhymes: “In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue.”
• Models
• Method of Loci
• Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable
units.
1-4-9-2-1-7-7-6-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
12. Retrieval
• Retrieval is locating stored information and returning
it to conscious thought.
• context-dependent: retrieved more readily when the
person is in a similar situation or environment as
when the information was learned.
• state-dependent: retrieved more readily when the
person is in a similar emotional state as when the
information was learned.
– Mood Congruence Effect
13. Recall Versus Recognition
Recall
• you must retrieve the
information from your
memory
• fill-in-the blank or essay
tests
Recognition
• you must identify the
target from possible
targets
• multiple-choice tests
14. Memory Activity
1 2 3 4 5
Nine Swap Cell Ring Lust
Plugs Lamp Apple Table Sway
Army Bank Fire Hold Worm
Clock Horse Color Baby Sword
Desk Hold Find Bird Rock
15. Reading
• Read page 197 “The Primacy and Recency Effect”
• Complete the Graphic Organizer under Serial Position Effect.
17. Learning Objectives
• EQ 1: How do humans encode, store, and retrieve information from
memory?
• EQ 2: How can humans enhance memory?
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Sensory memory
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
Iconic Memory
Maintenance Rehearsal
Elaborative Rehearsal
Forgetting
Vocabulary
19. Sensory Memory
• A split second
holding tank for ALL
sensory information
• Iconic Memory
• Echoic Memory
20. Short Term Memory
• The stuff we encode
from the sensory goes
to STM.
• Events are encoded
visually, acoustically or
semantically.
• Holds about 7 +/- 2
items for about 20
seconds.
• We recall digits better
than letters.
Short Term Memory Activity
21. Interference Theory
• Retroactive Interference: new information blocks out old
information.
Examples???
• Proactive Interference: old information blocks out new
information.
Examples???
22. Long Term Memory
• Unlimited storehouse of
information.
• Explicit (declarative)
memories
• Implicit (non-
declarative) memories
24. Storage
• Rehearsal: the
conscious repetition
of information,
either to maintain it
in consciousness or
to encode it for
storage.
Ebbinghaus' Retention Curve: Ebbinghaus found that the more times
he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the fewer repetitions
needed to relearn them on day 2. In other words, the more time we
spend learning new information, the better we retain it.
Spacing Effect: the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield
better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or
practice (i.e., cramming doesn't work well)
28. Constructive Memory
• Memories are not always what they seem.
• Elizabeth Loftus
• A constructed memory is a created memory.
• Misinformation effect
29.
30. Thinking
• Cognition
• mental activity associated with processing,
understanding, and communicating information
• Cognitive Psychology
• the study of these mental activities
• concept formation
• problem solving
• decision making
• judgment formation
• study of both logical and illogical thinking
31.
32. Thinking
• Concept
• mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people
• address
• country, city, street, house
• zip codes
• Prototype
• the best example of a category
• matching new items to the prototype provides a quick
and easy method for including items in a category (as
when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical
bird, such as a robin.)
• Prototype is a mental image or best example of a
category-formed on the basis of frequently experienced
features.
33. Types of Concepts
• There are two types of concepts
• Natural concepts: imprecise mental classifications that
develop out of our everyday experiences.
• Most of the concepts in our everyday life
• Artificial concepts: concepts defined by a set of rules or
characteristics, such as dictionary definition or
mathematical equations.
• Most of the concepts learned in school
34. Cognitive Maps
• As we saw before, cognitive maps are mental
representations of a given place or situation.
• Just the mental image is not enough however. Along with
the visual cortex, the frontal lobe of the brain provides us
with information on the episode, the context and
stimulus of a situation.
• Ex. Answering the phone at a friends house
35. Making Inferences
• To help us figure out the episode, the context and stimulus
of a situation we do have tools:
• Schema: General frameworks that provide expectations about
topics, events, objects, people and situations.
• Assimilation vs. Accommodation
• Assimilation: The process by which people translate incoming information
into a form they can understand
• Accommodation: The process by which people adapt current knowledge
structures in response to new experiences
• Script: Schemas about sequences of events and actions expected
to occur in particular settings.
36. Problem Solving
• When we are faced with a problem, we have a few options
for figuring out a solution.
• Algorithms: Problem solving procedures or formulas that
guarantee a correct outcome if correctly applied
• Heuristics: Simple, basic rules that serve as shortcuts to
solve complex mental tasks.
• They do not guarantee a correct solution
37. Thinking
• Algorithm
• methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees
solving a particular problem
• contrasts with the usually speedier – but also more error-
prone use of heuristics
39. Thinking
• Heuristic
• rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to make
judgments and solve problems efficiently
• usually speedier than algorithms
• more error-prone than algorithms
• sometimes we’re unaware of using heuristics
40. Thinking
Unscramble
S P L O Y O C H Y G
• Algorithm
• all 907,208 combinations
• Heuristic
• throw out all YY combinations
• other heuristics?
41. Thinking
• Insight
• sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
• contrasts with strategy-based solutions
• Confirmation Bias
• tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions
• E.g. MMR Vaccines cause Autism
• Fixation
• inability to see a problem from a new perspective
• impediment to problem solving
45. One problem with heuristic are mental sets.
When faced with problems, we have a tendency to approach
it in a familiar way.
• Mental Set
• tendency to approach a problem in a particular way
• especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not
be helpful in solving a new problem
Problems with Heuristics
46. Problems With Heuristics
• Another problem with relying on heuristics is called
functional fixedness, a sort of mental set issue.
• Functional Fixedness:
• The inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose.
• tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
49. ProblemsWith Heuristics
--Judgingand Decisionmaking
• Along with mental sets, bias can make heuristics a faulty decision making tool.
• Confirmation bias: a tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that
confirms one's preconceptions, leading to statistical errors
• Hindsight bias: Tendency to second guess a decision after the event has happened.
• Representative bias: rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how
well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes
• may lead one to ignore other relevant information
Availability bias: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in
memory. If instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we
presume such events are common
• Example: airplane crash
51. Thinking
• Framing
• the way an issue is posed
• how an issue is framed can
significantly affect decisions and
judgments
• Example: What is the best way to market
ground beef- As 25% fat or 75% lean?
52. Thinking
• Belief Bias
• the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical
reasoning
• sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or
valid conclusions seem invalid
• Belief Perseverance
• clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the
basis on which they were formed has been
discredited
53. CREATIVITY
• Convergent Thinking: It generally means the ability
to give the "correct" answer to standard questions
that do not require significant creativity, for
instance in most tasks in school and on
standardized multiple-choice tests for intelligence.
• Divergent Thinking: a thought process or method
used to generate creative ideas by exploring many
possible solutions
54. Artificial Intelligence
• Artificial Intelligence
• designing and programming computer systems
• to do intelligent things
• to simulate human thought processes
• intuitive reasoning
• learning
• understanding language
55. Artificial Intelligence
• Artificial Intelligence
• includes practical applications
• chess playing
• industrial robots
• expert systems
• Efforts to model human thinking inspired by our current
understanding of how the brain works
56. Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Neural
Networks
• computer circuits that
mimic the brain’s
interconnected neural
cells
• performing tasks
• learning to recognize
visual patterns
• learning to recognize
smells
57. Language
• Language
• our spoken, written, or gestured works and the way we combine them to
communicate meaning
• Phoneme
• in a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
• Morpheme
• in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning
• may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
• Grammar
• a system of rules in a language that enables us to
communicate with and understand others
58. Language
• Semantics
• the set of rules by which we derive meaning from
morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language
• Also, the study of meaning
• Syntax
• the rules for combining words into grammatically
sensible sentences in a given language
59. Language
We are all born to recognize speech sounds from all the
world’s languages
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage able
to discriminate
Hindi t’s
Hindi-
speaking
adults
6-8
months
8-10
months
10-12
months
English-
speaking
adults
Infants from English-speaking homes
60. Language Acquisition
• One of the defining characteristics of humans is the use
of complex language-our ability to communicate.
• Newborn children know zero words in English, or any
other language. Yet they have innate abilities to become
fluent speakers of any language they hear spoken, or
signed regularly.
61. Innateness-Theory of Language
• According to the innateness-theory of language, children acquire
language not only by imitating but also by following preprogrammed
steps to acquire language.
• Noam Chomsky-Language Acquisition Device-LAD: a mental structure that
facilitates the learning of language because it is preprogrammed with
fundamental language rules.
• Globally, all children follow the same pattern
of language acquisition.
• LAD is flexible-any language is possible
62. Language
• Babbling Stage
• beginning at 3 to 4 months
• the stage of speech development in which the infant
spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to
the household language
• One-Word Stage
• from about age 1 to 2
• the stage in speech development during which a child
speaks mostly in single words
63. Language
• Two-Word Stage
• beginning about age 2
• the stage in speech development during which a child
speaks mostly two-word statements
• Telegraphic Speech
• early speech stage in which the child speaks like a
telegram – “go car” – using mostly nouns and verbs and
omitting “auxiliary” words
64. Language
Summary of Language Development
Month
(approximate)
Stage
4
10
12
24
24+
Babbles many speech sounds.
Babbling reveals households
language.
One-word stage.
Two-world, telegraphic speech.
Language develops rapidly into
Complete sentences.
65. Language
• Genes design the mechanisms for a language, and experience fills
them as it modifies the brain
Genes
Environment
spoken language
heard
Brain
Mechanisms for
understanding and
producing language
Behavior
Mastery of
native
language
provides
input to
design
66. Language
• Learning a new
language gets
harder with age
100
90
80
70
60
50
Native 3-7 8-10 11-15 17-39
Percentage
correct on
grammar
test
Age at school
Assimilation: The process by which people translate incoming information into a form they can understand
Accommodation: The process by which people adapt current knowledge structures in response to new experiences