Conformity
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The document discusses several experiments that show how conformity occurs across cultures. It describes the Asch conformity experiments from the 1950s where participants gave incorrect answers to match the responses of actors. While Westerners conformed to strangers in these experiments, the document notes that Japanese people only conform to members of their own group. However, it concludes that people of all cultures are susceptible to conformity and will follow others, even if it leads to dangerous or harmful actions, if responsibility is taken by an authority figure rather than the individual.
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Test Review
The document discusses the components of meaning for words, including phonology, syntax, category, valency, semantics, and frames. It uses the word "horse" as an example, breaking down its phonology (/hɔːs/), syntactic category (noun), valency (determiner), semantic index (X), and frames (<Horse-Frame, Entity X>). The high-level summary is that the document outlines the linguistic components that define a word's meaning, using the word "horse" to demonstrate this breakdown.
Predicate calculus up
This document provides an introduction to propositional and predicate logic by presenting examples of their use in representing linguistic statements and relationships. It discusses how predicate logic uses predicates and quantifiers to represent internal structures and relationships between entities. It also explains how propositional logic and quantifiers can be used to model relationships between sets and make claims about existence and universality. The document suggests that while logic is important in linguistics and computer science, it may not fully capture how humans understand and use language.
Predicate calculus
This document provides an introduction to propositional and predicate logic, including examples of how they can be used to represent linguistic statements in a formal, computable way. Some key points covered include:
- Propositional logic uses simple statements connected with logical operators like "if-then", while predicate logic introduces predicates and variables to represent internal structures.
- Examples show how predicate logic can represent statements about individuals and their properties or relationships using predicates, variables, and quantifiers.
- While logic provides a useful formalism for linguistics and computer science, some argue it may not accurately capture how humans naturally understand and use language. Modern linguistics also explores how language relates to other aspects of human cognition beyond logical representations.
Sentence sem1update
This document discusses sentence semantics and propositional logic. It introduces basic concepts like predicates, arguments, propositions, logical connectives, and quantifiers. Predicates represent relationships between entities, and can take 1, 2, or more arguments. Propositions assign truth values (true/false) to simple statements with no internal structure. Logical connectives like "if...then" and "and" represent logical relationships between propositions. Quantifiers like "all" and "some" indicate whether a predicate applies to all or some members of a set. The document uses many examples to illustrate these logical terms and how they can be used to simplify natural language statements.
Sem6 up
The document discusses language as creation. It provides examples from Hindu myths, the Bible, and Harry Potter that describe words creating entities like the earth, sky, light through speech acts. It also discusses how words can create individuals, objects, situations, and principles. The document questions whether words can truly be considered acts of creation and ponders how language works at a basic level.
Sem6
The document discusses different views on how language can be seen as a form of creation. It provides examples from Hindu myths, the Bible, and fictional statements to illustrate this. Words and sentences are not just symbols but can be considered as creating or representing actual things, individuals, actions, or situations in the mind of the listener or reader. There is a debate around whether and how precisely a word or phrase can be thought of as an object or event in itself.
Sem5
An introduction to information and semantics in linguistics. Constructing a simple model of language.
Sem3
- The document discusses semantics and how meaning is derived from words, concepts, and objects in the real world. It explores different theories of word meaning, including referential semantics which relates words to objects, and lexical semantics which relates words to other words. The document also discusses semantic fields which group related words together, and componential analysis which breaks down meaning into semantic primitives or features.
Sem4
The document discusses several key concepts in semantics including:
- Word meaning is composed of the sign or word, the thing or concept it refers to in the real world, and the idea of that thing.
- Nouns have an identity index that specifies person, number, and gender. Verbs have a situation index rather than an entity.
- Word meaning is also defined through semantic frames which represent all the aspects and attributes associated with the word's concept.
- Different word categories like nouns and verbs have different types of semantic information that define their meaning including identity/situation indexes and the frames that are part of their concept.
Bare phrasestructure II
The document discusses bare phrase structure and how sentences are analyzed in this framework. It shows that a sentence consists of a verb phrase with an empty valence list, and phrases are built up recursively from lexical items through mergers governed by syntactic rules. Examples of English and Japanese phrases and sentences are broken down into their constituent parts to illustrate bare phrase structure.
Bare phrase structure
The document discusses the principles of bare phrase structure and X-Bar Theory in syntax. It introduces basic syntactic categories and structures like noun phrases, verb phrases, and prepositional phrases. Examples are provided in English and Japanese to illustrate how different languages construct phrases under the same bare phrase structure. The document also includes quiz examples for the reader to practice analyzing phrases based on these syntactic principles.
65 86 ling3
The document discusses the history and debates around linguistic theories from the 1960s-1980s. It describes how Chomsky's theory of universal grammar was initially challenged by theorists like George Lakoff who argued meaning was more important than syntax. It then explains how Chomsky's theory of movement and extra syntactic structures like X-bar theory emerged to account for linguistic phenomena. In the 1990s, Chomsky introduced Minimalism which aimed to simplify theories by reducing unnecessary movement and structure.
Phrase Structure Rules from 57
A quick look at the history of linguistics and how we got too focused on grammar as we tried to find universal rules.
Merge rec2
This document discusses the ideas of linguist Noam Chomsky and debates around his theory of Universal Grammar. It introduces concepts like merge and recursion, and questions whether these are uniquely features of human language or found in other domains as well. While Chomsky argued language abilities are hardwired, others believe language is more like ordinary thinking and that merge and recursion may appear in other areas like mathematics, nature, or animal communication. The document acknowledges there are different views and that ultimately, more research is needed to fully understand these complex issues.
Ling2 gengram
The document discusses the concept of infinite creativity in language and recursion. It explores the idea that language rules allow for an infinite number of sentences to be generated through recursive embedding of phrases. While this ability seems infinite, the document notes that in practice recursion becomes difficult beyond a certain point due to issues like boredom, confusion or lack of meaning. It then discusses how generative grammar approaches like those of Chomsky analyze the deep structure of language in the brain using rules of syntax, metaphor, and the merging and embedding of phrases. The history of these ideas is traced back thousands of years, but significant modern work began in the 1960s, though many open questions still remain about concepts like Universal Grammar.
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Conformity
- 1. Conformity
- 3. The Emperor’s new clothes
- 4. People SAY the clothes are great
- 5. Some people believe it
- 6. Some people know he’s naked …
- 7. … but they are afraid to say anything
- 8. … maybe people will dislike them
- 9. They don’t want disharmony
- 10. They go with the flow
- 11. They just try to fit in
- 12. So everyone goes with the flow
- 13. Until a little boy points out …
- 14. … that the Emperor is naked.
- 15. Then everyone laughs at the stupid Emperor
- 16. Western countries are individualist, right?
- 17. So this couldn’t happen in the west?
- 18. Must be a Japanese story?
- 19. Japan is group oriented
- 21. So it’s a Japanese story?
- 22. Hans Christian Anderson was Japanese?
- 23. No, he was from Denmark!
- 24. So why is this story important in the west?
- 25. Western people are not individualistic?
- 27. Imagine you are an exchange student
- 28. You’re studying in California
- 29. Or Hawaii
- 30. Or London
- 31. Or Pizzaland … who cares?
- 32. Anyway, your friends say “Let’s go out for pizza.”
- 33. You’re Japanese
- 34. You think, “Hm … pizza sounds good”
- 35. But maybe I should be careful
- 36. Maybe Japanese are too conformist
- 37. And maybe I would prefer Chinese
- 38. Maybe I shouldn’t just go with the flow
- 39. Maybe my friends will respect my individuality
- 40. Maybe I’ll regret it …
- 41. How about Chinese instead?
- 42. The question is …
- 44. Actually they did experiments
- 45. Starting in the 1950s
- 46. Continuing until quite recently
- 47. The Asch conformity experiment
- 48. A group like this
- 49. Notice that they are not Japanese
- 50. Every person EXCEPT ONE, is an actor
- 51. Yes -- every person EXCEPT ONE, is an actor
- 52. Only one person is an ordinary person
- 53. Actor, actor, actor, actor, actor, ordinary person
- 54. Here’s the Asch test
- 55. Very simple
- 56. Look at the line on the left
- 57. Which line A B C is the same length?
- 58. Yes, it’s C
- 59. It’s easy
- 60. Very easy
- 61. But in the test …
- 62. … all the actors give the wrong answer
- 63. They all say A
- 64. Or they all say B
- 65. And the ordinary person follows the actors
- 66. They say they believed the actors
- 67. Or they didn’t want to destroy the harmony!
- 68. Remember these are western people!
- 69. They follow the opinion of strangers
- 70. They’ve done the same thing in elevators
- 71. Everyone faces the wrong way
- 72. They are all actors!
- 73. They’re all facing away from the door
- 74. And ordinary people usually follow them
- 75. And turn around
- 76. That’s strange
- 77. They’ve even got people to start dancing!
- 78. So westerners are pretty high on conformity
- 79. So how about Japanese?
- 80. You must be REALLY high
- 81. Japan is super conformist, right?
- 82. How did Japanese do on the Asch test?
- 83. 100% conformity?
- 84. Actually, no
- 85. Actually, much lower than westerners!
- 86. Actually, lower than everyone
- 87. I thought Japan was group-oriented
- 88. Actually, Japan IS group-oriented
- 89. Japanese people don’t follow strangers
- 90. And they don’t really follow friends
- 91. But they DO follow their group members
- 92. So westerners conform to strangers
- 93. But Japanese only conform to group members
- 95. • Which is a bit worrying • Because maybe people will follow others • And do very bad things • For example?
- 97. E is the experimenter (the psychologist)
- 98. T is the ordinary person
- 99. L is an actor
- 100. E tells T to give L a shock
- 101. An electric shock
- 102. T gets paid a little for the day’s work
- 103. Starts with a small shock
- 104. Builds up to a big shock
- 105. T thinks it may be dangerous
- 106. T thinks L may die!
- 107. But T still gives L the shock
- 108. If E takes responsibility
- 109. So we will do very bad things
- 110. If others take responsibility