This document discusses the impacts of climate change on Africa and India and strategies to mitigate and adapt to climate change. It finds that the average temperature in Africa has risen 0.5°C in the 20th century, with more frequent and intense droughts and floods. Many African countries experience regular droughts. In India, warming trends and more frequent, intense flooding and droughts are exacerbating existing water issues. Mitigation strategies discussed include increasing forest cover, agroforestry, improved agricultural practices like manure management, and organic farming. Adaptation strategies aim to increase resilience of communities in Africa and India to climate impacts.

1. “WST 500”
‘’IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON HYDROLOGIC PROCESSES MITIGATION AND
ADAPTATION STRATEGIES: CASE STUDY OF AFRICA AND INDIA’’
TERM PAPER
Name- Celestin DEFO
Roll No.: 10369, Ph. D, 1st year Course Leader: Dr. Sushma. S.
Division of Water Science and Technology, IARI New Delhi

2. Content
Introduction: what is Climate Change?
Climate Change status in Africa
Climate Change in India
Mitigation strategies of Climate Change
Adaptation strategies to Climate Change in Africa and
India

3. Introduction
‘’Global warming is for real. Every scientist knows that now, and
we are on our way to the destruction of every species on earth, if
we don't pay attention and reverse our course’’. Theodore C. Sorensen;
Global warming is the ‘talk of the town’ in this century, with its
detrimental effects already being brought to limelight by the recurring
events of massive floods, annihilating droughts and ravaging cyclones
throughout the globe ;
Before embarking on a detailed analysis of Global warming and its
impacts on climate, we should first know what climate, green house
effect and global warming actually mean.

4. Introduction
The climate is defined as’ the general or average weather
conditions of a certain region, including temperature,
rainfall, and wind’.
The earth’s climate is most affected by latitude, the tilt of
the Earth's axis, the movements of the Earth's wind belts,
and the difference in temperatures of land and sea, and
topography.
Human activity, especially relating to actions relating to
the depletion of the ozone layer, is also an important factor.

5. Introduction
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
Green House effect is the phenomenon whereby the earth's
atmosphere traps solar radiation, and is mediated by the
presence in the atmosphere of gases such as carbon dioxide,
water vapor, and methane that allow incoming sunlight to pass
through, but absorb the heat radiated back from the earth's
surface.
Thus the Green house gases (GHGs) provide a blanketing effect in the
lower strata of the earth’s atmosphere, and this blanketing effect is
being enhanced because of the human activities like burning of fossil
fuels etc.

6. Introduction
EFFECT OF GLOBAL WARMING ON THE EARTH’S CLIMATE
Detailed researches of climatic events of the past 150 years have
revealed that the temperatures have risen all over the globe, with
the warming occurring in two phases.
The first phase was from 1919 to 1940, with an average
temperature gain of 0.35°C, and the second phase was from 1970
to the present, exhibiting temperature gains of 0.55°C.
Records show that the past 25 years have been the warmest time
of the past 5 centuries. The global warming has resulted in the
warming of the oceans, rising of the sea levels, melting of
glaciers, and diminished snow cover in the Northern
Hemisphere.

7. Global Drivers of Change:
9 billion people by 2050
Food crises
Climate change
Energy crises
Water scarcity
Dietary change
Urbanization
Collapsing fish
Stocks Pollution
2 Billion by 2050
Global food chains
disadvantage
smallholders
Networked science
Strength of BRICs
Deforestation, soil
erosion and
exhaustion
Growth of private
sector
Economies of
scale
increasing challenges – increasing opportunities Seleshi B et al, 2010

8. Global Drivers of Change:
In general, climate changes prior to the Industrial Revolution in the
1700s can be explained by natural causes, such as:
changes in solar energy, volcanic eruptions, and natural changes in
greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations.
Recent climate changes, cannot be explained by natural causes alone.
But, by the human activities such as the production of GHG can very
likely explain most of that warming.
GHG (Green House Gas) are: CO2, CH4 and N2O

9. Climate change in Africa
The six warmest years on record in Africa have occurred
within the last 20 years and the average temperature rose
approximately 0.5 °C during the 20th century.
In addition, the continent has seen a decrease in rainfall
over large parts of the Sahel and Southern Africa, and an
increase in parts of East and Central Africa.
The number of weather-related disasters, droughts and
floods, has doubled in Africa over the last 25 years, and
Africa has higher mortality rates from droughts than any
other region.

10. Climate change in Africa
Projection of the ricks of global warming in Africa
While the exact nature of the changes in temperature,
precipitation, and extreme events is relatively known, there is
agreement about the general trends.
Global mean surface temperature is projected to increase
between 1.5 °C (2.7°F) and 6 °C (10.8°F) by 2100. Sea levels are
projected to rise by 15 to 95 centimeters (6 to 37 inches) by 2100.
Climate change scenarios for Africa indicate future warming
across the continent ranging from 0.2°C (0.36°F) per decade (low
scenario) to more than 0.5°C (0.9°F) per decade (high scenario)
(Hulme Desanker and Magadza 2001).

11. Climate change in Africa
These years climatic variation manifests itself as extreme weather variations, such as
floods and droughts. These events are increasing in magnitude and frequency over the
years. The mean annual rainfall has been decreasing over the decades:
Many countries, including Botswana, Burkina Faso, Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mauritania
and Mozambique, experience drought at regular intervals.
The 1997-98 El Niño floods caused heavy damage to roads, buildings, bridges, railway
lines and other property including schools.
Incidences of epidemic diseases such as malaria increased during this period. This is
related to improved conditions for mosquito breeding; mosquitoes transmit many
viruses, over 100 of which are known to infect humans, including malaria, dengue, yellow
fever and severe and sometimes fatal encephalitis and dengue haemorrhagic fever
(Akhtar and others 2001). Cholera, which is transmitted by water or food, could aggravate
health problems in many parts of the world including Africa.
Lake Chad has already decreased in size by about 50% in the last 40 years.

12. Climate change in Africa
Change Region
Average conditions
Temperature increase Entire continent (median projected increase in annual average
temperature: 3 to 4 ºC (end of century to present)
Decrease in rainfall West coast of Africa as far south as 15º N
Southern Africa
Increase in rainfall Northern parts of East Africa
Uncertain projections for rainfall Sahel (already high variability)
Guinean coast
Southern Sahara
Sea level rise Low lying islands and coastal zones
Delta regions
Extremes
Increase in intense precipitation events Entire continent (this applies also in regions of mean drying because
there is a proportionally larger decrease in the number of rain days)
Cyclones Uncertain — changes in magnitude and frequency, and shifts in
cyclone tracks possible
Source IPCC (2007)

13. Climate change in Africa
From 1973 to 2001, 50% of the Lake Chad have dried

14. Climate change in Africa
More intense and unpredictable weather events are
likely in countries such as Kenya, Ethiopia, Malawi,
Mozambique, and Madagascar
The six warmest years on record in Africa have
occurred within the last 20 years and the average
temperature rose approximately 0.5 °C during the 20th
century.
In addition, the continent has seen a decrease in
rainfall over large parts of the Sahel and Southern
Africa, and an increase in parts of East and Central
Africa.
The number of weather-related disasters, droughts
and floods, has doubled in Africa over the last 25
years, and Africa has higher mortality rates from
droughts than any other region.
Many countries, including Botswana, Burkina Faso,
Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mauritania and Mozambique,
experience drought at regular intervals.
Source, World Bank, 2009.

15. Climate Change in India
There has been a particularly alarming effect of global warming on the climate of India.
India is already a disaster prone area, with the statistics of 27 out of 35 states being
disaster prone, with most disasters being water related.
The process of global warming has led to an increase in the frequency and intensity of
these climatic disasters. According to surveys, in the year 2007-2008, India ranked the
third highest in the world regarding the number of significant disasters, with 18 such
events in one year, resulting in the death of 1103 people due to these catastroph;
Warming trend over India has been reported to be 0.57 C per 100 years.
Floods, droughts and cyclones are key extreme climatic events
Permanent glaciers in upper Himalayas have vacated large areas, resulting in an increase
in glacial runoff.
Plausible annual changes in area-averaged surface air temperature and precipitation over
south Asia as a result of future increase in greenhouse gases.

16. Climate Change in India
(Lal et.al, 2004)

17. Climate Change in India
View of the different disaster prone areas of India

18. Climate Change in India
Recents Floods in india
FLOODS IN BIHAR:
 over populated state in Northern India, extremely prone to
floods.
 The total area covered by the state of Bihar is 94,163 km2.
Its average elevation above sea level is 173 feet.
 Bihar faces the predicament of floods almost every year,
with the link between India and Nepal
 The Koshi River being one of the main reasons for the
flood in Bihar.
 Excessive rainfall due to the recent global warming in
Nepal leads to an overloading of dams and leads to flash
floods in the Bihar region.

19. Climate Change in India
People evacuated from their homes due to the incessant floods in
India wade in the waters, searching for a place to make camp.

20. Climate Change in India
2005: MAHARASHTRA FLOOD: a major climatic catastrophe
occurred in the state of Maharashtra in the form of massive floorings, leading to a death
toll of 5000 people. The areas of Mumbai, Chiplun, Khed, Kalyan, Ratnagiri and Raigad
were completely flooded
2007 SOUTH ASIAN FLOODS: global warming finally triggered a flood
formation that was so devastating, that it annihilated the entire South Asian region, destroying large zones in India,
Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh. It’s most devastating effects were observed in South India, where it lasted for
more than 15 days, killing more than 2000 people and affecting another 30 million.
2009 INDIAN FLOODS: The most affected states were Karnataka,
Orissa, Kerala, Gujarat and North-East Indian states, with over 200 people reported dead,
and a million homes destroyed

21. Climate Change in India
A Hindu devotee tries to take a holy dip
in the flooded waters of river Ganges in
the northern Indian town of Haridwar,
on June 18, 2013
Buses and trucks sit submerged in the rising
waters of the Yamuna River in New Delhi,
on June 19, 2013. (AP Photo/Tsering Topgyal)
ww.theatlantic.com/infocus/2013/06/early-monsoon-rains-flood-northern-india/100537/

22. Climate Change in India
A submerged idol of Hindu Lord
Shiva stands in the flooded River
Ganges in Rishikesh, in the
northern Indian state of
Uttarakhand, on June 18, 2013.
Torrential monsoon rains have
cause havoc in northern India
leading to flash floods, cloudbursts
and landslides as the death toll
continues to climb and more than
1,000 pilgrims bound for Himalayan
shrines remain stranded.
ww.theatlantic.com/infocus/2013/06/early-monsoon-rains-flood-northern-india/100537/

23. Climate Change in India
2010 LADAKH FLOODS: On 6th August 2010, Leh and many other
villages of the Ladakh range were drowned by a downpour that killed at least 255 people
2011 INDIAN FLOODS: The 2011 surge of severe precipitation affected
India savagely, with surging flood waters in Northern and Eastern India affecting
more than 10 million people as the swollen rivers washed away roads and towns,
particularly in the states ofWest Bengal, Bihar, Kerala and Assam.
2012 NORTHERN INDIAN FLOODS: The year 2012 is also
included in the continuous chain of years of floods in India. In Assam, at least 27 people
died and 900,000 were forced to evacuate their homes as monsoon rains. Uttarakhand,
Himachal Pradesh and Jammu

24. Climate Change in India
Droughts in India
People parched for water are ready to injure each other as they
struggle to get water from a well in the drought affected areas of
India

25. Cyclones
West Bengal,
Orissa,
Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu
along the Bay of
Bengal are the
most affected
Climate Change in India

26. Mitigation Strategies
Many options of mitigating the atmospheric concentration of CO2 by 2050 at
approximately 550 ppm. Have been indicated by some authors.
C sequestrations in terrestrial ecosystems with renewable biomass constitute a
major C sink.
Forests, forestery and agriculture offer many benefict to the mitigation
strategies of climate change

27. Mitigation Strategies
1. Forests
 The global forests cover 3952 million ha, or 30% of the earth’s land area of
which about 95% are natural forests and 5% are plantations (FAO, 2005)
 Tropical and subtropical forests comprise 56% of the world’s forests, while
temperate and boreal forests accounts account for 44%. Forests are capable of
mitigating large amount of carbon dioxide.
 Presently, the net rate of C sequestration in forest ecosystems (other than those
being deforested) is 1.7 to 0.5 Pg Cyr-1.
 the forest sector has a biophysical mitigation potential of 5.4 PgCyr-1 on
average up until 2050

28. Mitigation Strategies
2 Agroforestry
 An attractive and promising option for sequestering carbon on
agricultural lands while leaving the bulk of the land for agricultural
production,
 Agroforestry plays vital roles in mitigation of atmospheric
accumulation of GHGs,
 Carbon sequestration rates are very encouraging for complex
agroforestry, boundary planting, hedgerow intercropping, and home
gardens.

29. Mitigation Strategies
Agro foresty
practice
Carbon
sequestration rate
(tonnes C eq ha-1
yr-1)
Region
Complex
agroforestry
11 Central Africa
Boundary planting 35-50 Central Africa
Hedgerow
1-37 Indonesia and
intercropping
India
Sajwaj et al, 2008

30. Mitigation Strategies
3 Agriculture
 Agriculture provides the primary source of livelihood for more than
one third of the world’s total workforce, producing the food needed to
sustain the population of our planet.
 Agriculture directly contributes between 5.1 and 6.1 Pg CO2-eq (10-12%)
to global greenhouse gas emissions, in form of CH4 and N2O, less CO2
 There are a wide range of mitigation options in agriculture, with an
overall potential of up to 6 Pg CO2-eq yr-1, but with economic potentials
of around 4 Pg CO2-eq yr-1 at carbon prices up to 100 US$ t CO2-eq-1

31. Mitigation Strategies
1. Manure and nutrient management
 Manure is a major source of methane, responsible for some 400 million
tons of CO2-equivalent and poor manure management is a leading source
of water pollution;
 Use wastes for anaerobic biogaz digester and help climate;
 Improve the use of N fertilizers in agriculture;
 Now a day, organic farming is being promoted as a climate friendly and
sustainable farm system. It is thought to contribute to GHG mitigation
based on a number of factors. Organic agriculture has a much reduced
consumption of fossil fuels for energy less vulnerability of soils to erosion, and
an increase in carbon sequestration.

32. Mitigation Strategies
2. Soil management
 Most cultivated soils contain about 1 to 5% carbon by weight, much of
it stored in organic matter, derived from the residues of plants growing
on the soil;
 The goal of soil management, for GHG mitigation, is to increase the
soil organic matter, thus increasing the amount of organic carbon that
is retained in soils. Several soil management practices favour increased
soil C storage.

33. Mitigation Strategies
3. Livestock management
 An annual emission from livestock is about 7.1 billion tons (including
2.5 billion tons from clearing land for the animals, accounting for about
14.5 percent of emissions from human activities;
 Animal nutrition has the potential to reduce urine and manure N
content, which will result in lower N2O emissions. Through breeding
programmes, substantial progress has been made in reducing CH4
emissions per litre of milk produced or per kilogram of meat.

34. Mitigation Strategies
4. Energy management
 A wide range of materials have been proposed for use, including grain, crop
residue, cellulosic crops (e.g. switch grass, sugarcane) and various tree
species.
 These products can be burned directly, but often are processed further to
generate liquid fuels such as ethanol or diesel fuel;
 These fuels release CO2 when burned, but this CO2 is of recent
atmospheric origin (via photosynthesis) and displaces CO2 which
otherwise would have come from fossil C;
 According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the use of ethanol
blended with gasoline can reduce motor vehicle emissions of carbon
monoxide by 25% to 30% and also reduce ozone levels that contribute to
urban smog.

35. Adapting to Climate Change
Adaptation measures are a series of policies that reduce the
vulnerability of natural systems, human population and
economies to climate stresses and climate change (Duwing et al
1997). This can be achieved through:
Institutional Arrangements
Warning and Prevention of Floods
Management of Droughts
Adaptation in agriculcure

36. Adapting to Climate Change
Improving Institutional Capacity
Integrated planning for extreme climatic events at all
levels
Modern unified legislation for disaster management
Comprehensive, robust and accessible database
National network of all knowledge-based institutions
Introduction of weather-indexed insurance
Provision of adequate financial support for
adaptation/ vulnerability reduction schemes

37. Adapting to Climate Change
Development and Management of Water Resources
Enhance water storage capacity,
Conduct strategic analysis of NRLP and
implement the inevitable
Improved design standards in disaster prone
areas
Enhance water productivity at all levels
Invigorate the traditional institutions at local
levels
Promote private partnership in critical functions

38. Adapting to Climate Change
Adaptation to Floods
•Learning to live with
the floods
• Improved flood forecasting
• Area inundation forecast
• Flood plain zoning
,enforcement of regulations
• Community participation
in flood management

39. Adapting to Climate Change
Drought management is still
an ad-hoc and empirical famine intervention for providing instant
relief to prevent starvation.
Vulnerability mapping,
community involvement;
prevention, mitigation and
quick response, use of modern
tools and and procedures of
imonitoring, impact documentation and capacity building is not
yet fully in place

40. Adapting to Climate Change
Comprehensive, decentralized system of drought declaration and
management
Vulnerability-level based system of drought response
Shift in favor of robust and integrated system of
livelihood opportunities
Water harvesting at local, community and strategic level as a strategic
intervention for mediating drought impacts

41. Adapting to Climate Change
Adaptation of Agriculture
•Use of biotechnology to
formulate suitable gene
constructs to impart drought
resistance and heat and cold
tolerance.
•Improved crop production
techniques to enhance input
use efficiency, use of resource
conservation technologies,
attain higher yields .
•Special efforts for coastal,
hilly and other critical and
fragile areas.

42. THANK YOU