This document discusses how climate change poses a threat to achieving sustainable development goals in Africa. It defines key terms like climate change and sustainable development. It then examines how climate change affects health, water access, agriculture, biodiversity, education, and more in Africa. However, it also notes some potential benefits of climate change for Africa. International agreements like the Kyoto Protocol provide mechanisms to help address climate change challenges in Africa. The document concludes that climate change will continue posing dangers to African development and achieving sustainable goals by 2030 if not properly addressed.

1. Introduction
Since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio in 1992,
sustainable development remained elusive for many African countries with poverty, deforestation,
desertification and climate change its main threats hence the paper seeks to inspect the perception
that climate change is an obstacle to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals in Africa.
Climate change has become a global phenomenon which has attracted attention from all over the
world. All human activities hinges upon climate and a slight change in one of its element can
impose a significant change to life on earth. Several conventions, treaties and bilateral have been
negotiated and ratified (The Earth Summit (1992); Kyoto Protocol (1997); Article 3) in a bid to
protect the atmosphere and eliminate or reduce the scale of activities which affect the atmosphere
saving the earth.
Definition of key terms
Climate change - is a change in global or regional climate patterns, in particular a change apparent
from the mid to late 20th century onwards and attributed largely to the increased levels of the
atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by the use of fossil fuels. Climate change also has a change
or shift in the earth’s overall climate and this change could be in weather patterns and average
temperatures.
Sustainable Development -The 1987 Brundtland Commission‘s report “Our Common Future”
defines sustainable development as “the development that meets the needs of the present with
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
Climate Change vulnerability in Africa

2. From the last definition it can be noted that development can begin when there is proper utilisation
and conservation of natural resources and be enjoyed by future generations. So because of poor
utilisation and conservation of natural resources sustainable development cannot be attained as a
result of climate change effects. Africa has become the victim of the problems of climate change
caused by the poor management of resources, heavy industrial activities from the North. Climate
change has devastating challenges in Africa on such as agriculture, loss of biodiversity, health,
animals and plants. According to Hulme (1996), “climate change compounds the challenges of
rapid urbanisation in the Sub-Saharan Africa by making the urban population more vulnerable.
Rising sea levels due to climate change could threaten coastal settlements with floods and storm
surges.” Most of the big cities in Sub-Saharan Africa are also at a higher risk of floods because of
the way they are located along the coasts.
Diseases inAfrica
Climate change has devastating and critical health challenges in African societies. Changes in
rainfall patterns has affected the presence and absence of vector and water –borne pathogens. For
example Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change IPCC (2001) noted that it can be expected
that small changes in the temperature and precipitation will boost the population of diseases,
carrying mosquitoes and result in increased malaria epidemic. Lindsay (1998) notes that,
“increased flooding and facilitates the breeding of these malaria carries in formerly arid areas.”
Climate change has a negative effect on the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals in
Africa particularly goals number (3) three. The goal calls for the ensuring of healthy lives and
promote wellbeing for all at all ages. This goal cannot be achieved because there is a persistent
change of temperatures and the high outbreak of diseases which is compromising the health
delivery system in Africa. Warsome et al (1995) adds that these problems will be worsened by the

3. inability of many African communities to cope with increased diseases. Climate change continues
to pose a serious threat to the development and achievement of sustainable development goals in
Malawi for example. Mutunga (2012) notes that Malawi has a total land area of 94.080 square
kilometres of which 20.7% is arable land. So climate change challenges facing Malawi include the
rise of waterborne diseases such as bilharzia due to the persistent flooding, malaria due to the
persistent change of temperatures.
Human health including the social, physical and psychological wellbeing depends on the adequate
supply of the potable water and safe environment. Because of climatic changes, people are exposed
directly through weather patterns and indirectly through changes in water, air, food qualities and
the quantities of the ecosystem. Ozor (2009) notes that climate change induces health problems as
a result of hunger and starvation, water stresses, pests and diseases, conflicts and injuries. Water
related aspects of health include increased cases of cataracts (eye diseases) in semi-arid region of
Africa due to low cloud cover and greater intensity of solar radiation. Increased cases of malaria
and typhoid diseases due to high levels of rainfall patterns and temperatures while also there are
rising outbreak of waterborne diseases such as cholera and dysentery due to urban flooding and
improper disposal of wastes. Bates (2009) added that due to very large number of people that may
be affected, malnutrition and water scarcity may be the most important health consequences of
climate change.
Sustainable Development Goal number (6) six which calls for the ensuring of the availability and
sustainable management of water and sanitation for all is also being undermined as this is

4. evidenced by Nicholls et al (1998), he noted that in many African countries, urban settlement,
population expansion had outpaced the capacity of municipal authorities to provide civic works
for sanitation and other health delivery. Hence the goal is undermined by the ambivalence of the
climate change in Africa.
Impact of Climate Change on African food security and Agriculture.
Africa heavily relies on rain fed agriculture as a source of food security. World Resource Institute
(1996) notes that roughly 70% of the African population lives by farming, and 40% of all exports
are agricultural products and an estimation of one third of the income in Africa is generated by
agriculture . Crop production and livestock husbandry account for half of the household. So it can
be viewed that as a result agriculture in Africa is vulnerable to changes in temperature variability,
seasonal shifts and rainfall patterns. An assessment was done to look at the expected impacts of
the climate change on agriculture and food security in Africa.
IPCC (2007) reports provide an extensive assessment on the expected effects of climate change on
agriculture in African regions. The agricultural sector is also likely to experience periods of
prolonged droughts and floods during the El Nino events. Agriculture losses between 2-7% of the
Gross Domestic Product is expected by 2100 in parts of the Sub Saharan Africa, 2-4% and 0.4-
1.3% in West, North, Central and Southern Africa respectively FAO (2009). According to NRC
(2010), productivity in Africa will be further undermined by a reduction in fertile agricultural land
available and expansion in the average of the low potential land. So from one’s point of view, the
climate change is undermining the achievement of sustainable development goal number 2 in
particular as it entails the end of hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote
sustainable agriculture. Because of the challenge of climate change that will likely to reduce the
soil fertility, and ultimately leads to low yields, the chances of ending hunger are very low.

5. Since the sustainable development goals have been gazetted to be achieved by 2030, there are
signs and symptoms being noted on the negative impacts of climate change on African agriculture
again. UNASLYVIA (2007), forecasts show that the Sub Saharan Africa will surpass Asia as the
most food insecure region inhabiting 40-50% of the undernourished people globally in 2080,
compared with 24% today. Furthermore it has been noted that the levels of viable arable land areas
for production are predicted to decline by 2080. In response to changes in temperatures and
sporadic rainfall patterns, Africa is predicted to receive an increase in crop pests and diseases in
addition to soil infertility. Also the declining incomes and rising unemployment are expected to hit
agriculture zones in combination to worsening health. Hence the road to 2030 to achieve the goal
number two of sustainable development in Africa is already blocked by the occurrence of the rising
climatic changes.
Impact on animals and plants in Africa
Siegfried (1989) notes that Africa occupies about one fifth of the global land surface and contains
about one fifth of the species of plants , mammals and birds in the world as well as one sixth of
the amphibians and reptiles. These species are vital in the African ecosystem as they promote the
existence of the biodiversity, boosting the tourism industries in Africa. The conservation of these
natural resources have been listed in the sustainable development goals and should be achieved by
2030. Climate change had already affected the marine animals of Africa in the sense that after
absorbing a large proportion of the carbon dioxide released by human activities, the oceans are
becoming acidic. If it were not for the oceans, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would
be much higher.
The effect could be that fish, squid, and other gilled marine animals may find it harder to breathe,
as the dissolved oxygen essential for their life becomes difficult to extract as water becomes more

6. acidic. And shellfish, crabs, lobsters, and corals may find it more difficult to build their calcium
carbonate shells. Spalding (2001) notes that coral reefs in the Indian Ocean experienced massive
bleaching in the 1998 with over 50% mortality in some of the regions. Damage to coral reefs
system has far reaching implications for fisheries, food security and tourism and overall marine
diversity. The sustainable development goal number (14) fourteen which calls for the conservation
and sustainable use of marine resources by 2030 is being compromised by these unusual climatic
changes in Africa.
Water and Climate Change in Africa
Climate change and variability have potential to impose additional pressure on water availability,
accessibility and water demands in Africa.Gueye eta al (2005), notes that Egypt is one of the
African countries that could be vulnerable to water stress under climate change. The water used in
2000 was estimated at about 70 cubic kilometres which is already far in excess of the available
resource. Climate change is posing serious threat in Egypt as the temperatures rise will likely
reduce the productivity of major crop and increase their water requirements thereby directly
decreasing crop water use efficiency. Pittock (2005) notes that many people in Africa live under
water stress defined as those using more than 20% of their renewable water resources. For example
Gleick (2000) reports that water withdraw in Nigeria during 1990s was 28cubic meters per person
per year. This means that water is seriously threatened by the variability of climate in Africa.
UNEP (2003) notes that about 1.100 million people do not have access to clean drinking water and
contaminated water is the cause 5million of death every year with the majority of these in Sub-
Saharan Africa. So from the researcher’s point of view, climate change has derailed the progress
in achieving the sustainable development goals in Africa as there are water challenges, water is a
precious natural resources that has multiple usage so the unavailability and inaccessibility of water

7. in Africa affects education, health, marine and terrestrial life and may result in conflicts among
tribes and nations.
Impact of climate change on education in Africa.
Reports from Save the Children (2008) and UNICEF (2008) reveal the impact will likely be seen
most immediately in disruptions to education provision. This is already the case in the region:
Periods of excessive heat already prevent students from attending school, as do increasingly more
common sandstorms, like those seen in the Sub Saharan Africa. In certain areas, where drought-
parched grounds are unable to absorb rains, flash floods can make roads impassable, preventing
students from reaching schools. The floods cause the disruptions to electricity, a potential side
effect, can force schools to suspend activity, while in extreme cases, severe weather can actually
damage infrastructure. While the cumulative effect of these disturbances on students' education
performance is not well known, it is certain that interruptions in attendance can only have
detrimental consequences for learning outcomes. Over the longer term, it is forecast that climate
change, along with other confounding factors such as the high poverty rate in the region, will
combine to create environmental degradation, a subsequent deterioration in livelihoods, and put
pressure on populations to migrate. Research suggests that in all instances such effects are likely
to disproportionately affect children, their well-being and care, and their ability to participate in
good quality, equitable education.
Climate change will also impact education in other indirect ways. A warmer climate alters the
geographic range of disease vectors, such as mosquitoes, thus exposing new human populations to
diseases, such as malaria and dengue, for which they are unprepared. Outbreaks of three different
diseases, aseptic meningitis in Djibouti in West Africa have all been attributed to either

8. unseasonably warm winter temperatures generated by new and exceptional El Niňo weather
patterns or by heat waves. Disruptions to existing agricultural practices, another secondary effect
of climate change, will lead to more widespread malnutrition because of higher food prices.
Together, these have a combined impact on children that is particularly troublesome from an
educational point of view, there is strong evidence to suggest that school-aged children who suffer
from protein-energy malnutrition, hunger, or who lack certain micronutrients in their diet
(particularly iron, iodine, or vitamin A) or who carry a burden of diseases such as malaria, diarrhea
or worms do not have the same potential for learning as healthy and well-nourished children and
that they are more likely to repeat grades, drop out early and fail to learn adequately due to poor
attention, low motivation and poor cognitive function. (CREATE, 2008).
Biodiversity Loss in Africa
Biodiversity sustains, and is usefully dependent on ecosystem. Human beings heavily depend on
bio diverse ecosystem that support food, fuel and fibre production. So in the case of the damage
by climate change, FAO (1999) notes that long term declines in rainfall patterns have increased
the spread of the deserts in Southern and Western Africa resulting in shifting sands dunes and the
loss of flora and fauna. Hence the sustainable development goals in Africa is being undermined
because the absence of biodiversity in the human and animal lives leads to declining of economic,
social and technological development in Africa.
Responses to the challenges of Climate Change in Africa.

9. Conversely not all assessment of the impacts of climate change in Africa are negative, there are
likely so some positive aspects due to the changes in the seasons and production cycles. Desanker
(2011) notes that Ethiopia and Southern Africa are expected to have extended growing seasons due
to climate changes, a consequence of increased temperatures and rainfall variability. In addition
the livestock sector could be boosted by the temperature rises thus according to IPCC’s model an
increase in the 50C could mean a rise in farmer income by up to 58%. According to Olatunde
(2013) “the global efforts on climate change provide an opportunity for economic and hopefully
for sustainable development arising from the mechanisms provided in the Kyoto Protocol.” So for
example the provision of the Clean Development Mechanism when applied to Nigeria and the rest
of the affected African states, it has to give the opportunities to developed countries to invest in
climate change victim African countries though other continents will benefit more.
The Kyoto Protocol also has an article 3 which is the Emissions Trading and Reduction which
allows developed or industrialised countries to set up an emission reduction project such as the
nuclear power generator to replace a fossil fuel generator in other territories. So the researcher’s
point of view this is a brilliant idea because it is way of reducing the emissions effects in the
African countries since they are the most victims of the consequences of the gas emissions from
the North.

10. Conclusion
In nutshell, climate change which comprises of the change in rainfall patterns, temperature rises,
has posed and will continue to cause more danger to African environments and ultimately lead to
poor achievements of the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. Health, water, education,
ecosystem and biodiversity, African population will be heavily affected by the change of the
temperature and sporadic rainfall patterns. However , not all the effects of climate will damage the
African development but some have the positive effects as it is noted that the high temperatures
are favourable to livestock farming thus boosting the sustainable development goal Africa and the
early rainfall patterns will lead to high yields especially in Southern Africa. Kyoto Protocol have
also been important in mitigating the effects of climate change on sustainable development goals
by bringing in articles which should be followed by member states and non-member states in
solving the challenges of climate change in Africa .

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