The document discusses the indicators of climate change, including rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events linked to both natural and human-made climate forcings. It highlights the role of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, in contributing to climate change, along with their global warming potentials. The effects of climate change on ecosystems, health, and society, along with specific indicators like ocean heat content, glacier melting, and shifting species distributions, are also detailed.

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Indicators of Climate
Change
By
Prof. A. Balasubramanian
Centre For Advanced Studies in Earth Science
University of Mysore
Mysore-6

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1. The Earth's climate is changing.
Temperatures are rising, snow and rainfall patterns are
shifting, and more extreme climate events – like heavy
rainstorms and record high temperatures – are already
happening.

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2. What are Radiative / Climate Forcings?
Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference
between insolation (sunlight) absorbed by the Earth and
energy radiated back to space.
Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation
and the concentrations of radiatively active gases,
commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols.

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Any changes to the Earth’s climate system that affect
how much energy enters or leaves the system alters
Earth’s radiative equilibrium and can force temperatures
to rise or fall.
These destabilizing influences are called climate
forcings.
Climate forcings are a) Natural , b) Manmade, c)
Positive and d) Negative.

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3. Positive radiative forcing means Earth receives more
incoming energy from sunlight than it radiates back to
the space. This net gain of energy will cause warming.
4. Conversely, negative radiative forcing means that
Earth loses more energy into space than it receives from
the sun, which produces cooling.

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5. Natural climate forcings include changes in the Sun’s
brightness, Milankovitch cycles (small variations in the
shape of Earth’s orbit and its axis of rotation that occur
over thousands of years), and large volcanic eruptions
that inject light-reflecting particles as high as the
stratosphere.

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6. Man-made forcings include particle pollution
(aerosols), which absorb and reflect incoming sunlight;
deforestation, which changes how the surface reflects
and absorbs sunlight; and the rising concentration of
atmospheric carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases,
which decrease heat radiated to space.
Many of these are linked to the rising levels of carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases in our atmosphere.

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7. Historical observations

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8. Components of Radiative Forcings:

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9.Long-term
Observations:

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10. Carbon dioxide equivalent :
“Carbon dioxide equivalent” or “CO2e” is a term for
describing different greenhouse gases in a common unit.
For any quantity and type of greenhouse gas, CO2e
signifies the amount of CO2 which would have
the equivalent global warming impact.
It is necessary to convert all greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions into CO2 equivalents so they can
be compared.

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11. Global Warming Potential (GWP):
Each greenhouse gas (GHG) has a different global
warming potential (GWP) and persists for a different
length of time in the atmosphere.
The three main greenhouse gases (along with water
vapour) and their 100-year global warming potential
(GWP) compared to carbon dioxide are:
 1 x – carbon dioxide (CO2)

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 34 x – methane (CH4) – I.e. Releasing 1 kg of
CH4 into the atmosphere is about equivalent to releasing
34 kg of CO2
 298 x – nitrous oxide (N2O) – I.e. Releasing 1 kg of
N2O into the atmosphere is about equivalent to releasing
298 kg of CO2
Water vapour is not considered to be a cause of man-
made global warming because it does not persist in the
atmosphere for more than a few days.

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Greenhouse Gas Formula 100-year GWP (AR4)
Carbon dioxide CO2 1
Methane CH4 34
Nitrous oxide N2O 298
Sulphur hexafluoride SF6 22,800
Hydrofluorocarbon-23 CHF3 14,800
Hydrofluorocarbon-32 CH2F2 675
Perfluoromethane CF4 7,390
Perfluoroethane C2F6 12,200
Perfluoropropane C3F8 8,830

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Greenhouse Gas Formula 100-year GWP (AR4)
Perfluorobutane C4F10 8,860
Perfluorocyclobutane c-C4F8 10,300
Perfluoropentane C5F12 13,300
Perfluorohexane C6F14 9,300
For example, sulphur hexafluoride is used to fill
tennis balls.
The table shows that a release on 1 kg of this gas is
equivalent to 22,800 kg or 22.8 tonnes of CO2.

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Therefore, releasing ONE KILOGRAM of sulphur
hexafluoride is about equivalent to driving 5 cars for a
year.
For example,
the GWP for methane over 100 years is 34 and for
nitrous oxide 298.
This means that emissions of 1 million metric tonnes of
methane and nitrous oxide respectively is equivalent to

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emissions of 34 and 298 million metric tonnes of carbon
dioxide.
12. Six Major Climate Change Indicators:

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13. Greenhouse Gases & their Emissions:
Greenhouse gases from human activities are the most
significant driver of observed climate change since the
mid-20th
century.
13.1 Carbon dioxide accounts for most of the
emissions and most of the increase since 1990.
In 2010, estimated worldwide emissions from human
activities totaled nearly 46 billion metric tons of
greenhouse gases, expressed as carbon dioxide
equivalents.

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This represents a 35 percent increase from 1990.
This RF estimate is likely to be at least fi ve times
greater than that due to solar irradiance changes.
Increasing concentrations of the long-lived greenhouse
gases (carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous
oxide (N2O), halocarbons and sulphur hexafl uoride
(SF6); hereinafter LLGHGs) have led to a combined RF
of +2.63 [±0.26] W m–2.
The global mean concentration of CO2 in 2005 was 379
ppm, leading to an RF of +1.66 [±0.17] W m–2.

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For the 1995 to 2005 decade, the growth rate of CO2 in
the atmosphere was 1.9 ppm yr–1 and the CO2 RF
increased by 20%.
This is the largest change observed or inferred for any
decade in at least the last 200 years.
From 1999 to 2005, global emissions from fossil fuel
and cement production increased at a rate of roughly 3%
yr–1.

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Carbon dioxide has increased from fossil fuel use in
transportation, building heating and cooling and the
manufacture of cement and other goods.
Deforestation releases CO2 and reduces its uptake by
plants.
Carbon dioxide is also released in natural processes such
as the decay of plant matter.
13.2 Methane has increased as a result of human
activities related to agriculture, natural gas distribution
and landfills.

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Methane is also released from natural processes that
occur, for example, in wetlands.
13.3 Nitrous oxide is also emitted by human activities
such as fertilizer use and fossil fuel burning.
Natural processes in soils and the oceans also release
N2O.

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13.4 Halocarbon gas concentrations have increased
primarily due to human activities. Natural processes are
also a small source.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are nontoxic,
nonflammable chemicals containing atoms of carbon,
chlorine, and fluorine.
Principal halocarbons include the chlorofluorocarbons
(e.g., CFC-11 and CFC-12), which were used
extensively as refrigeration agents and in other industrial
processes.

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( CFC-11 (CCl3F=Trichlorofluoromethane) and
CFC-12 (CCl2F2=Dichlorodifluoromethane).

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This figure shows worldwide emissions of carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and several fluorinated
gases from 1990 to 2010.
For consistency, emissions are expressed in million
metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents. These totals
include emissions and sinks due to land-use change and
forestry.
* HFCs are hydrofluorocarbons, PFCs are
perfluorocarbons, and SF6 is sulfur hexafluoride.

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14. Climate Change Indicators: Weather and
Climate
14.1 Rising global average temperature is associated
with widespread changes in weather patterns.
14.2 Extreme climatic events:
Scientific studies indicate that extreme weather events
such as heat waves and large storms are likely to
become more frequent or more intense with human-
induced climate change.

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Observed changes are in temperature, precipitation,
storms, floods, and droughts.
Many extreme temperature conditions are becoming
more common.
14.3 Total annual precipitation has increased over
land areas in several places worldwide. Since 1901,
precipitation has increased at an average rate of 0.08
inches per decade over land areas worldwide. However,
shifting weather patterns have caused certain areas, to
experience less precipitation than usual.

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And also, the prevalence of extreme single-day
precipitation events are noticed.
14.4 Tropical Cyclone Activity
This indicator examines the frequency, intensity, and
duration of hurricanes and other tropical storms in the
Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean, and Gulf of Mexico.

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14.5 River Flooding
This indicator examines changes in the size and
frequency of inland river flood events.
Increases and decreases in the frequency and magnitude
of river flood events vary by region. Floods have
generally become larger and more frequent, across
different parts of the world.
14.6 Drought
A drought is a period of below-average precipitation in
a given region, resulting in prolonged shortages in the

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water supply, whether atmospheric, surface water or
ground water.
15. Climate Change Indicators: Oceans
Covering about 70 percent of the Earth’s surface, the
world’s oceans have a two-way relationship with
weather and climate. The oceans influence the weather
on local to global scales, while changes in climate can
fundamentally alter many properties of the oceans.

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Indicators:

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15.1 Ocean Heat:
Three independent analyses show that the amount of
heat stored in the ocean has increased substantially since
the 1950s.
Ocean heat content not only determines sea surface
temperature, but also affects sea level and currents.

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15.2 Sea Surface Temperature:
Ocean surface temperatures increased around the world
during the 20th century.

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Even with some year-to-year variation, the overall
increase is clear, and sea surface temperatures have been
consistently higher during the past three decades than at

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any other time since reliable observations began in the
late 1800s.
15.3 Changes in Sea Level(rise/fall):
When averaged over all of the world’s oceans, sea level
has risen at a rate of roughly six-tenths of an inch per
decade since 1880.
The rate of increase has accelerated in recent years to
more than an inch per decade.
Changes in sea level relative to the land vary by region.

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Along the U.S. coastline, sea level has risen the most
along the Mid-Atlantic coast and parts of the Gulf coast,
where some stations registered increases of more than 8
inches between 1960 and 2015.
Sea level has decreased relative to the land in parts of
Alaska and the Pacific Northwest.
15.4 Coastal Flooding:
Flooding is becoming more frequent along the U.S.
coastline as sea level rises.

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Nearly every site measured has experienced an increase
in coastal flooding since the 1950s.
The rate is accelerating in many locations along the East
and Gulf coasts.
The Mid-Atlantic region suffers the highest number of
coastal flood days and has also experienced the largest
increases in flooding.
15.5 Ocean Acidity:

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This indicator describes changes in the chemistry of the
ocean that relate to the amount of carbon dioxide
dissolved in the water.
The ocean has become more acidic over the past few
decades because of increased levels of atmospheric
carbon dioxide, which dissolves in the water.
Higher acidity affects the balance of minerals in the
water, which can make it more difficult for certain
marine animals to build their protective skeletons or
shells.

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16. Climate Change Indicators: Snow and Ice
The Earth’s surface contains many forms of snow and
ice, including sea, lake, and river ice; snow cover;
glaciers, ice caps, and ice sheets; and frozen ground.
Climate change can dramatically alter the Earth’s snow-
and ice-covered areas because snow and ice can easily
change between solid and liquid states in response to
relatively minor changes in temperature.

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16.1 Arctic Sea Ice
The annual minimum extent of Arctic sea ice has
decreased over time, and in September 2012 it was the
smallest ever recorded.

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The length of the melt season for Arctic ice has grown,
and the ice has also become thinner, which makes it
more vulnerable to further melting.

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16.2 Antarctic Sea Ice
Antarctic sea ice extent in September and February has
increased somewhat over time.
The September maximum extent reached the highest
level on record in 2014—about 7 percent larger than the
1981–2010 average.

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16.3 Glaciers
Glaciers around the world have generally shrunk since
the 1960s, and the rate at which glaciers are melting has
accelerated over the last decade.
The loss of ice from glaciers has contributed to the
observed rise in sea level.

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16.4 Lake Ice
Lakes in the northern United States are freezing later
and thawing earlier compared with the 1800s and early
1900s.
All of the lakes studied were also found to be thawing
earlier in the year, with spring thaw dates
growing earlier by up to 24 days in the past 110 years.

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16.5 Snowfall
Total snowfall—the amount of snow that falls in a
particular location—has decreased in most parts of the
country since widespread records began in 1930.
16.6 Snow Cover
Snow cover refers to the area of land that is covered by
snow at any given time.

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Between 1972 and 2015, the average portion of North
America covered by snow decreased at a rate of about
3,300 square miles per year, based on weekly
measurements taken throughout the year.
The length of time when snow covers the ground has
become shorter by nearly two weeks since 1972, on
average.

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16.7 Snowpack
The depth of snow on the ground (snowpack) in early
spring decreased at more than 90 percent of
measurement sites in the western United States between
1955 and 2016. Across all sites, snowpack depth
declined by an average of 23 percent during this time
period.

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17. Climate Change Indicators: Health and Society
Climate Change and Human Health
a) Heat-Related Deaths
b) Heat-Related Illnesses
c) Heating and Cooling Degree Days
d) Lyme Disease
e) West Nile Virus
f) Length of Growing Season
g) Ragweed Pollen Season.

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Changes in the Earth’s climate can affect public health,
agriculture, water supplies, energy production and use,
land use and development, and recreation.
The nature and extent of these effects, and whether they
will be harmful or beneficial, will vary regionally and
over time.

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18. Climate Change Indicators: Ecosystems

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Ecosystems provide humans with food, clean water, and a variety of other services that can be affected by climate change.
18.1 Wildfires
This indicator tracks the frequency, extent, and severity
of wildfires. The proportion of burned land suffering
severe damage each year has ranged from 5 to 21
percent.

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Changes in temperature, precipitation, snowpack, and
glaciers can affect the rate of streamflow and the timing
of peak flow. Over the last 75 years, minimum,
maximum, and average flows have changed in many
parts of the country—some higher, some lower.
18.2 Streamflow
Changes in temperature, precipitation, snowpack, and
glaciers can affect the rate of streamflow and the timing
of peak flow.

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Over the last 75 years, minimum, maximum, and
average flows have changed in many parts of the
world—some higher, some lower.
18.3 Stream Temperature
Stream temperatures have increased at 79 percent of the
stream sites measured.
18.4 Great Lakes Water Levels
Water levels in most of the Lakes appear to have
declined in the last few decades.

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Water levels in lakes are influenced by water
temperature, which affects evaporation rates and ice
formation.
18.5 Bird Wintering Ranges
Some birds shift their range or alter their migration
habits to adapt to changes in temperature or other
environmental conditions. Long-term studies have found
that bird species have shifted their wintering grounds

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by an average of more than 40 miles since 1966, with
several species shifting by hundreds of miles.
18.6 Marine Species Distribution:
The average center of biomass for 105 marine fish and
invertebrate species along coasts shifted by about 10
miles between 1982 and 2015. Shifts have occurred
among several economically important fish and shellfish
species.

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18. 7 Leaf and Bloom Dates:
Leaf growth and flower blooms are examples of natural
events whose timing can be influenced by climate
change.
Observations of lilacs and honeysuckles in the
contiguous 48 states suggest that first leaf dates and

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bloom dates show a great deal of year-to-year
variability.
Leaf and bloom events are generally happening earlier
in some places and later in some other places.
Use of Climatic Change Indicators:
Climate change indicators as identified through various
working groups of IPCC are used in Global Climate
Change Models for simulation of future scenarios of the
world.