“These are the naturally Organic compounds, insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents (alcohol, ether, etc.), which are potentially related to fatty acids & utilized by living cells."
Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds.
They are esters of fatty acids. Lipids occur widely in plants and animals. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and related compounds.
Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils. These molecules yield high energy and are responsible for different functions within the human body.
Lipids Chemistry Structure & Function (More Detailed)hafizayyub
This presentation is for Medical students. It is more detailed explanation of Lipids including types and medical importance. It is made by Drs Charles Stephen and Dr Ayyub Patel
“These are the naturally Organic compounds, insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents (alcohol, ether, etc.), which are potentially related to fatty acids & utilized by living cells."
Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds.
They are esters of fatty acids. Lipids occur widely in plants and animals. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and related compounds.
Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils. These molecules yield high energy and are responsible for different functions within the human body.
Lipids Chemistry Structure & Function (More Detailed)hafizayyub
This presentation is for Medical students. It is more detailed explanation of Lipids including types and medical importance. It is made by Drs Charles Stephen and Dr Ayyub Patel
Introduction
Definition
Classification of polysaccharides
1- Homopolysaccharides
2-Heteropolysaccharides
What is heteropolysaccarides?
Type of heteropolysaccharides
Function of heteropolysaccharides
Conclusion
References
Introduction
Definition
Classification of polysaccharides
1- Homopolysaccharides
2-Heteropolysaccharides
What is heteropolysaccarides?
Type of heteropolysaccharides
Function of heteropolysaccharides
Conclusion
References
Lipids may be regarded as organic substances which is insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents (alcohol , ether etc.), Triacylglycerols (formerly triglycerides) are the esters of glycerol with fatty acids.
Lipid chemistry.pdf lipid for example shows how to make use3943279
chemistry lipid Congenital and Developmental Anomalies of Permanent and Deciduous Posterior Teeth
Introduction
Congenital and developmental anomalies of teeth refer to variations in tooth number, size, form, and structure that occur during tooth development. These anomalies can affect both permanent and deciduous (primary) teeth. In this assignment, we will explore some common anomalies related to posterior teeth.
1. Congenital Anomalies of Teeth Number
Hypodontia
Hypodontia is characterized by the congenital absence of one or more permanent teeth.
It occurs when a permanent tooth fails to develop and emerge within the expected timeframe.
Patients with hypodontia may have missing incisors, premolars, or molars.
Early diagnosis and management are essential for proper treatment planning.
Hyperdontia
Hyperdontia refers to the presence of extra teeth beyond the normal dentition.
Supernumerary teeth can occur in various locations, including the posterior region.
These additional teeth may cause crowding, impaction, or other complications.
2. Congenital Anomalies of Teeth Size
Microdontia
Microdontia refers to abnormally small teeth.
It can affect single teeth or entire dentitions.
Microdontia may lead to functional and aesthetic challenges.
Macrodontia
Macrodontia involves abnormally large teeth.
It can result from genetic factors or localized disturbances during tooth development.
Macrodontia may cause occlusal problems and esthetic concerns.
3. Congenital Anomalies of Teeth Form and Structure
Localized Processes
Gemination
Gemination occurs when a single tooth bud partially splits into two teeth.
The fused tooth appears larger than normal and has a unique shape.
Commonly affects incisors and canines.
Fusion
Fusion results from the union of two adjacent tooth buds.
The fused teeth share a common pulp chamber and root canal.
May lead to altered occlusion and hygiene challenges.
Taurodontism
Taurodontism involves an enlarged pulp chamber and elongated roots.
The pulpal floor is displaced apically.
Seen in molars, especially in patients with certain genetic conditions.
Dens Invaginatus
Dens invaginatus (also called “dens in dente”) is a malformation where enamel invaginates into the pulp chamber.
Predisposes the tooth to caries and pulpal infections.
Dens Evaginatus
Dens evaginatus is an accessory cusp on the occlusal surface.
More common in premolars.
Requires careful restoration to prevent fracture.
Dilaceration
Dilaceration refers to a sharp bend or curve in the root of a tooth.
May result from trauma during tooth development.
Can complicate extraction or orthodontic treatment.
Enamel Pearl
Enamel pearls are small, spherical enamel projections on the root surface.
Often found near furcation areas.
May contribute to periodontal problems.
Turner’s Hypoplasia
Localized enamel hypoplasia due to trauma or infection during tooth development.
Results in pits or grooves on the enamel surface.
4. Radiographic Examinations
Radiographs (such as cone-beam compu
This presentation intends to offer a bird's eye view of bio-molecules in general and lipids in particular along with its beneficial and harmful attributes.
1.Biomolecules
Introduction, classification, chemical nature and biological role of
carbohydrate, lipids, nucleic acids, amino acids and proteins. 2.Bioenergetics
Concept of free energy, endergonic and exergonic reaction, Relationship
between free energy, enthalpy and entropy; Redox potential.
Energy rich compounds; classification; biological significances of ATP
and cyclic AMP
3. Lipids.pptx topic for bsn and allied health sciencesitxshanzee4892
Lipids topic for bsn and allied health sciencesLipids topic for bsn and allied health sciencesLipids topic for bsn and allied health sciencesLipids topic for bsn and allied health sciencesLipids topic for bsn and allied health sciences
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
1. Lipid chemistry Part 1 ,2
Biochemistry1 / first semester
3rd stage of pharmacy college
Dr. Basima Sadq
2. Outline
1. Introduction
2. Definition, Classification and Functions of Lipids
3. Fatty Acids
4. Essential Fatty acids
5. Reactions of Lipids
6. Characterization of Fat (Tests for Purity of Fat)
7. Triacylglycerols or Triacylglycerides or Neutral Fat
8. Phospholipids and Glycolipids
9. Cholesterol
10. Lipoproteins
11. Eicosanoids
12. Prostaglandins
13. Micelles, Lipid Bilayer, and Liposomes Detergents
3.
4. 1. Introduction
- Lipids are a major source of energy for the body.
- Have various biochemical function.
- Role in cellular structure.
NOTE// Lipids are a heterogeneous group of water
insoluble (hydrophobic) organic molecules.
Lipids include
Fats Oils Steroids Waxes Related compounds.
5. 2. Definition, Classification and Functions of Lipids
Definition: - Organic substances insoluble in water but soluble
in organic solvents like chloroform, ether and benzene.
- They are esters (R-Coo-R) of fatty acids with alcohol
esters and are utilizable by the living organism.
Classification of Lipids
(A) Simple (B) Complex or (C) Derived lipids.
Lipids compound lipids
Triglycerides Wax Glycolipids
(neutral fats) Phospholipids Lipoprotein
• Fatty acids
• Steroids
• Cholesterol
• Lipid soluble
vitamins & hormones
• Ketone bodies.
6. (A) Simple Lipids
- These are esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.
- Depending on the type of alcohols, these are subclassified as:
1. Neutral fats or triacylglycerol 2. Waxes.
or triglycerides
1. Neutral fats or triacylglycerol or triglycerides
- These are esters of fatty acids with alcohol glycerol,
e.g. tripalmitin.
- Because they are uncharged, they are termed as
neutral fat.
- The fat we eat are mostly triglycerides.
- A fat in liquid state is called an oil. e.g. vegetable oils;
like; groundnut oil, mustard oil, corn oil, etc.
7. 2. Waxes
Other waxes
These are esters of fatty acid
with alcohol.
Examples:
• Cholesterol forms
cholesterol ester
• Retinol (vitamin A) forms
vitamin A ester
• Cholecalciferol (vitamin D)
forms vitamin D ester.
True waxes
These are esters of fatty acids with
higher molecular weight
(monohydric long chain alcohols.)
NOTE: have no importance as far as
human metabolism is concerned.
Example:
• Lanolin (from lamb’s wool)
• Bees-wax
• Spermacetic oil (from whales).
Importance and usage:
1. Pharmaceutical
2. cosmetic
3. manufacture of lotions
4. ointments and polishes.
8. (B) Complex or Compound Lipids
These are esters of fatty acids, with alcohol containing
additional (prosthetic) groups.
subclassified according to the type of prosthetic group
1. Phospholipids 2. Glycolipids 3. Lipoproteins.
1. Phospholipids:
- Lipids containing, in addition to fatty acids and an alcohol, a
phosphoric acid residue.
They also have nitrogen containing bases and other substituents.
Classified on the basis of the type of alcohol:
(A) Glycerophospholipids (B) Sphingophospholipids.
The alcohol present is glycerol. The alcohol present is sphingosine.
Ex: Cardiolipins. Ex: Sphingomyelins.
9. 2. Glycolipids Lipids
- containing fatty acid, alcohol sphingosine and additional
residue are carbohydrates (sugar) with nitrogen base.
- They do not contain phosphate group.
- Called glycosphingolipids.
For example:
• Cerebrosides
• Gangliosides.
3. Lipoproteins
- Lipoproteins are formed by combination of;
(lipid + prosthetic group protein)
e.g. serum lipoproteins like:
• Chylomicrons
• Very low density lipoprotein (VLDL)
• Low density lipoprotein (LDL)
• High density lipoprotein (HDL).
10. (C) Derived Lipids
- Derived lipids include the products obtained after the
hydrolysis of simple and compound lipids which
possess the characteristics of lipids.
Simple lipids
+
Compound lipids
Example:
• Fatty acids
• Steroids
• Cholesterol
• Lipid soluble vitamins and hormones
• Ketone bodies.
Products
(Derived lipids)
Vitamins: D, A, E and K
(DAEK)
Steroid Hormones:
Estrogen,
progesterone and
testosterone
Hydrolysis
11. Functions of Lipids
A. Storage form of energy: The fats and oils in living organisms.
B. Structural Lipids: Cell membranes.
e.g. phospholipids, glycolipids and sterols.
C. Cholesterol, a sterol, is a precursor of many steroid hormones,
vitamin D and is also an important component of plasma membrane.
D. Thermal insulator in Skin and some organs
E. Nonpolar lipids act as electrical insulators in neurons.
F. Lipids are important dietary constituents because of the fat soluble
vitamins and essential fatty acids which are present in the fat of
natural foods.
G. Lipids help in absorption of fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E and K).
They act as a solvent for the transport of fat soluble vitamins.
12. 3. Fatty Acids
- Carboxylic acids with hydrocarbon chains (–CH2–CH2–CH2–)
and represented by a chemical formula R-COOH, where R stands for
hydrocarbon chain.
- The fatty acids are amphipathic in nature, i.e. each has hydrophilic
(COOH) and hydrophobic (hydrocarbon chain) groups in the structure.
13. (a) Straight Chain Fatty Acids - linear Chain of carbon
subclassified into two classes:
(1). Saturated fatty acids. -C-C-C-C-C-
There is no double bond in the hydrocarbon chain of these fatty acids.
Have two subclasses:
a. Even carbon acids 4, 6, 8 or 16 carbons..
e.g. palmitic
b. Odd carbon acids 3 or 5 carbons..
e.g. propionic acid.
(2). Unsaturated fatty acids. -C-C=C=C-C-C-
These contain double bonds in their hydrocarbon chains.
Have two subclasses :
a. Monoenoic or contain one double bond
monounsaturated fatty acid -C-C-C-C=C-C-C-
b. Polyenoic or contain more than one double bond
polyunsaturated fatty acid. -C-C=C=C-C-C-C=C=C-
14.
15. (b) Branched Chain Fatty Acids
These are less abundant than straight chain acids in animals and plants,
e.g. • Isovaleric acid • Isobutyric acid.
(c) Substituted Fatty Acids
In substituted fatty acids one or more hydrogen atoms have been
replaced by another group, e.g.
1. Lactic acid of blood
2. Cerebronic acid and oxynervonic acids of brain glycolipids
3. Ricinoleic acid of castor oil.
(d) Cyclic Fatty Acids
Fatty acids bearing cyclic groups are present in some bacteria and seed
lipids.
e.g. hydrocarpic acid (Chaulmoogric acid) of chaulmoogra seed.
16.
17. Functions of Fatty Acids
1. They serve as building blocks of phospholipids and glycolipids.
These amphipathic molecules are important components of
biological membranes.
2. Fatty acid derivatives serve as hormones, e.g. prostaglandins.
3. Fatty acids serve as a major fuel for most cells.
Numbering of Fatty Acid Carbon Atoms
Fatty acid carbon atoms are numbered starting at the carboxyl terminus.
Carbon atoms 2 and 3 are often referred to as α and β respectively.
The methyl carbon atom at the distal end of the chain is called;
omega (ω) carbon.
18. Representation of Double Bonds of Fatty Acids
Systems for designing double bond?
(1) C-system (2) ω- or n-system
- C1 being the carboxyl carbon. - ‘ω’ or ‘n’ refers to the carbon of their
terminal methyl group in a fatty acid.
- double bond is represented by the - ω-9 represents the double bond position
symbol Δ delta.
- Oleic acid C: 18:1: Δ9 - Oleic acid (C:18:1:ω-9)
19. 4. ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS
Fatty acids, that are required for optimal health and cannot
be synthesized by the body and should be supplied in the diet are
called essential fatty acids.
They are polyunsaturated fatty acids, namely;
((linoleic acid and linolenic acid))
Arachidonic acid can be synthesized from linoleic acid.
Therefore, in deficiency of linoleic acid, arachidonic acid also
becomes essential fatty acids.
Humans lack the enzymes to introduce double bonds at
carbon atoms beyond C9 in the fatty acid chain.
Hence, humans cannot synthesize linoleic acid and linolenic
acid having double bonds beyond C9. And thus, linoleic and
linolenic are the essential fatty acids.
20. Function of Essential Fatty Acids
(A) Synthesis of Eicosanoids
Linoleic acid and linolenic acid supplied by the diet are the
precursors for the synthesis of a variety of other unsaturated fatty
acids.
Arachidonic acid, a fatty acid derived from linoleic acid is an
essential precursor of eicosanoids, which include:
• Prostaglandins • Thromboxanes
• Prostacyclin • Leukotrienes.
Linoleic acid
Diet precursor for
linolenic acid
(Essential fatty acids) precursor
Eicosanoids
unsaturated
fatty acids.
(Arachidonic acid)
21. (B) Maintenance of Structural
- Integrity EFAs are required for membrane structure and function.
- These fatty acids are important constituents of phospholipids in cell
membrane and help to maintain the structural integrity of the
membrane.
(C) Development of Retina and Brain
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA: ω-3), which is synthesized from
linolenic acid is particularly needed for development of the brain and
retina during the neonatal period.
(D) Antiatherogenic Effect
Essential fatty acids increase esterification and excretion of
cholesterol, thereby lowering the serum cholesterol level.
Thus, essential fatty acids help to
prevent the atherosclerosis.
22. Essential Fatty Acid Deficiency
• Deficiency of EFAs is characterized by scaly skin, eczema
(in children), loss of hair and poor wound healing.
• Impaired lipid transport and fatty liver may occur due to
deficiency of EFAs.
• EFAs deficiency decreases efficiency of biological
oxidation.
23. 5. Reactions of Lipids
Saponification
Hydrolysis of a fat by alkali is called saponification. The products are
glycerol and the alkali salts of the fatty acids, which are called soaps
(Figure 3.4). Acid hydrolysis of a fat yields the free fatty acids and
glycerol.
24. Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation of unsaturated fats in the presence of a catalyst
(nickel) is known as “hardening”.
It is commercially valuable as a method of converting these
liquid fats, usually of plant origin into solid fats as margarines, vegetable
ghee, etc.
Peroxidation
Peroxidation (auto-oxidation) of lipids exposed to oxygen is
responsible not only for deterioration of foods (rancidity) but also for
damage to tissues in vivo, where it may be a cause of cancer.
Lipid peroxidation is a chain reaction generating free radicals
that initiate further peroxidation.
To control and reduce peroxidation, humans make use of
antioxidants. Naturally occurring antioxidants include vitamin E
(tocopherol) and β-carotene (provitamin A), which are lipid soluble and
vitamin C, which is water soluble.
25. Rancidity
The unpleasant odor and taste, developed by natural fats upon
aging, is referred to as “rancidity”.
Rancidity may be due to hydrolysis or oxidation of fat.
• Rancidity due to hydrolysis:
Naturally occurring fats, particularly those from animal sources,
are contaminated with enzyme lipase. The action of lipase brings about
partial hydrolysis of glycerides of fat.
• Rancidity may also be caused by various oxidative processes:
For example, oxidation at the double bonds of unsaturated fatty
acids of glycerides may form peroxides, which then decompose to form
aldehydes of unpleasant odor and taste, this process is increased by
exposure to light or heat.
` Many natural vegetable fats and oils may contain antioxidants
like vitamin E which prevent onset of rancidity. Therefore, vegetable fats
can be preserved for a longer time than animal fats.
26.
27.
28.
29. 7. Triacylglycerols or Triacylglycerides or Neutral Fat
- These are esters of fatty acids with glycerol.
- Triacylglycerol consists of three fatty acids, which are esterified
through their carboxyl groups, resulting in a loss of negative charge
and formation of neutral fat.
- • Simple triacylglycerols contains the same kind of fatty acid in all
three positions.
- •Mixed triacylglycerols contain two or more different fatty acids.
a. The fatty acid on carbon 1 is
usually saturated.
b. That on carbon 2 is usually
unsaturated
c. that on carbon 3 can be
either of the two.
30. • As the polar hydroxyl groups of glycerol and polar carboxyl groups of
the fatty acids are bound in ester linkages, triacylglycerols are nonpolar,
hydrophobic and neutral (in charges) molecules, essentially insoluble in
water.
• The presence of the unsaturated fatty acid(s) in triacylglycerol
decreases the melting temperature of the lipid and remains in liquid
form (oil).
• Vegetable oils such as corn and olive oil are composed largely of
triacylglycerols with unsaturated fatty acids and thus are liquids at
room temperature.
• Triacylglycerols containing only saturated fatty acids, such as beef fat,
are white greasy solids at room temperature.
• Triacylglycerols are highly concentrated storage form of metabolic
energy.
Unsaturated fatty acid Saturated fatty acid
liquid solid
31.
32. Classification of Phospholipids
1. Glycerophospholipids or that contain glycerol as the alcohol.
phosphoglycerides,
2. Sphingophospholipids that contain sphingosine as the alcohol.
33. Glycerophospholipids or Phosphoglycerides
• Phospholipids derived from glycerol are called;
phosphoglycerides or glycerophospholipids
• In glycerophospholipids, the hydroxyl groups at C1 and C2 of glycerol are
esterified with two fatty acids. The C3 hydroxyl group of the glycerol is
esterified to phosphoric acid and resulting compound called, phosphatidic acid.
• Phosphatidic acid is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of other
glycerophospholipids.
• In glycerophospholipids, phosphate group of phosphatidic acid becomes
esterified with the hydroxyl group of one of the several nitrogen base or other
groups. Different types of glycerophospholipids are discussed below.
34. Phosphatidylcholine (lecithin)
• These are glycerophospholipids containing choline. These are
most abundant phospholipids of the cell membrane having both
structural and metabolic functions.
• Dipalmitoyl lecithin is an important phosphatidylcholine found in
lungs, secreted by pulmonary type II epithelial cell. It acts as a lung
surfactant and is necessary for normal lung function. It reduces
surface tension in the alveoli, thereby prevents alveolar collapse
(adherence of the inner surfaces of the lungs).
35.
36. Phosphatidylethanolanine (Cephalin)
• They differ from lecithin in having nitrogenous base ethanolamine in
place of choline.
• Thromboplastin (coagulation factor III), which is needed to initiate the
clotting process, is composed mainly of cephalins.
Phosphatidylserine
It contains the amino acid serine rather than ethanolamine and is found
in most tissues.
Phosphatidylinositol
• In phosphatidylinositol, inositol is present as the stereoisomer
myoinositol.
• Phosphatidylinositol is a second messenger for the action of hormones
like oxytocin and vasopressin.
Plasmalogens
• Are generally similar to other phospholipids but the fatty acid at C1 of
glycerol is linked through an ether, rather than an ester bond.
37.
38. Lysophospholipids
Lysophospholipids are produced when one of the two fatty
acid is removed from glycerophospholipid. The most common of
these are lysophosphatidylcholine (lysolecithin) and
lysophosphatidylethanolamine.
Cardiolipin (Diphosphatidylglycerol)
• Cardiolipin is composed of two molecules of phosphatidic acid
connected by a molecule of glycerol.
• Two molecules of phosphatidic acid esterified through their
phosphate groups with a molecule of glycerol are called
Cardiolipin.
• Cardiolipin is a major lipid of mitochondrial membrane and is
necessary for optimum function of the electron transport process.
• This is only human glycerophospholipid that possess antigenic
properties.
39. Sphingophospholipids
Phospholipids derived from alcohol sphingosine instead of
glycerol are called Sphingophospholipids, e.g. sphingomyelin.
Sphingomyelin
• Sphingomyelin is the only phospholipid in membranes that is not
derived from glycerol. Instead, the alcohol in sphingomyelin is
sphingosine, an amino alcohol.
• In sphingomyelin, the amino group of the sphingosine is linked to a
fatty acid to yield ceramide (sphingosinefatty acid complex).
• In addition, the primary hydroxy group of sphingosine is esterified
with phosphorylcholine .
• Sphingomyelin is one of the
principal structural lipids of
membranes of nerve tissue.
40.
41.
42.
43. Glycolipids
• Glycolipids as their name implies, are sugar containing lipids.
Glycolipids consist of alcohol sphingosine.
• The amino group of sphingosine is esterified by a fatty acid and one
or more sugar units are attached to the hydroxyl group of
sphingosine.
• Glycolipids are widely distributed in every tissue of the body,
particularly in nervous tissue such as brain.
Classification of Glycolipids
Four classes of glycolipids have been distinguished:
1. Cerebrosides (Ceramide + Monosaccharides)
2. 2. Sulfatides
3. 3. Globosides
4. 4. Gangliosides.
49. 9. Cholesterol (animal sterol)
• Cholesterol is the major sterol in animal tissues. Sterols are a class of
steroids containing hydroxyl group.
• It consists of steroid nucleus namely phenanthrene containing 19-
carbon atoms.
• It consists of methyl side chains at position C10 and C13 which are
shown as single bonds.
• Cholesterol, a 27-carbon compound, has an 8-carbon side chain
attached to the D ring at C17 and a hydroxyl group attached to C3 of the
A ring, with one double bond between carbon atoms 5 and 6.
50.
51.
52. 10. Lipoproteins
- large water soluble complexes
- formed by a combination of lipid and protein
- transport insoluble lipids through the blood between
different organs and tissues.
• Lipoproteins consist of a lipid core containing nonpolar
triacylglycerol and cholesterol ester surrounded by a single layer of
amphipathic phospholipids and free cholesterol molecules with
some proteins, (apoprotein).
• The protein components are referred to as an apoprotein or
apolipoprotein. There are four major types of apolipoproteins
designated by letters A, B, C and E with subgroups given in Roman
numerals I, II, III, etc.
53.
54. Classes of Lipoproteins
According to their physical and chemical properties:
1. Chylomicrons 2. Very low density lipoproteins (VLDL)
3. Low density lipoprotein (LDL) 4. High density lipoprotein (HDL).
55.
56. 11. Eicosanoids
• Prostaglandins and the related compounds thromboxanes and
leukotriens, are collectively known as eicosanoids.
Eicosanoids are synthesized from arachidonic acid. A polyunsaturated
fatty acid containing 20-carbon atoms from which they take their
general name (Greek: eikosi means twenty).
Prostaglandins
Thromboxanes collectively known as eicosanoids.
leukotriens,
57. Prostaglandins
• Prostaglandins are a group of 20-carbon compounds derived from
arachidonic acid.
• They derive their name from the tissue in which they were first
recognized (the prostate gland) but they are now known to be present
in almost all tissues.
• Chemically, the prostaglandins are derivatives of the hypothetical
parent compound prostanoic acid, having cyclopentane (5 carbon) ring
and two aliphatic side chains R1 and R2.
• Prostanoic acid does not occur naturally but is regarded as the parent
compound of the prostaglandins and thromboxanes for the purpose of
classification and carbon numbering.
• In addition to cyclopentane ring, each of the biologically active
prostaglandin has a hydroxyl group at carbon 15, a double bond
between carbons 13 and 14, and various substituents on the ring.
58.
59.
60. Functions of prostaglandins
• Prostaglandins and other eicosanoids have hormone like actions.
• Prostaglandins in many tissues act by regulating the synthesis of cyclic
AMP (cAMP).
As cAMP mediates the action of many hormones, the
prostaglandins affect a wide range of cellular and tissue functions:
1. Smooth muscle contraction and relaxation
2. Inflammatory response
3. Platelet aggregation
4. Regulation of Blood pressure
5. Body temperature
6. Gastric secretion
7. PGs are involved in Na+ and water retention by kidney tubules.
61. Functions of thromboxanes
• TXA2 is produced by platelets, promotes platelets aggregation. Platelet
aggregation initiates thrombus formation at sites of vascular injury.
• TXA2 causes contractions of the smooth muscles of the arterial wall
and therefore, raises blood pressure.
63. Liposomes
• When a lipid bilayer closes on itself a spherical vesicle called as
‘liposome’ is formed .
Functions
1. Liposomes are used as a carrier of certain drugs to specific site of body
where they act. They can deliver drugs directly into cell because they
easily fuses with cell membranes.
2. They are used in cancer therapy to deliver drugs only to cancer cells.
3. In gene therapy also they are used as vehicles
Lipoprotein X(LpX)
1. It is a variant of LDL. It contains apo C as well as albumin.
2. It is a bilammallar vesicle with an aqueous lumen. It contains equal
amounts of phospholipids and cholesterol. Triglycerides and cholesterol
esters are present in only small amounts (2 to 3%).
1. It appears in the plasma of cholestatic patients. It may be formed in bile
and enters plasma due to regurgitation that occurs in cholestatic
individuals.
2. It interacts with other lipoproteins present in plasma
64. LIPID LAYERS, MICELLES AND LIPOSOMES
Lipids like triglycerides are insoluble in water because they contain non-polar hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain.
Similarly, cholesterolester is also insoluble in water because of hydrophobic steroid nucleus.
Amphipathic Molecules
Lipids like cholesterol, phospholipids and bile salts contain both water soluble polar head group and water
insoluble non-polar tail. Since they have two very different kinds of groups these molecules are called as
‘amphipathic molecules’.
Lipid monolayer
When amphipathic molecules like phospholipids are present in water, their polar head groups orient towards
water phase and hydrophobic tails towards air.
As a result, a unimolecular lipid layer is formed at water air interphase
Function
Formation of mixed micelles is very important for digestion and absorption of lipids. Mixed micelles are also
formed during cleansing action of soaps and detergents
66. Detergents
- Detergents are amphipathic molecules and
are not natural membrane constituents.
In aqueous solutions, they form micelles, with
the hydrophilic regions on the outside, interacting
with the water, and the hydrophobic regions inside.
• The bile acids and bile salts are powerful naturally
occurring detergents which emulsify fats in the
digestive tract; they can also be used to solubilize
membrane proteins.
• Lysophospholipids also have detergent like action.