Thinking involves mental processes like organizing, understanding, and communicating information that occurs in the brain. There are different types of thinking including mental imagery, concepts, prototypes, problem solving, creativity, and intelligence. Problem solving can involve trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, or insight. Intelligence involves the ability to learn and adapt, and it can be measured through IQ tests. Language is a system of symbols like words that allow for communication and it involves grammar, sounds, meaning, and social aspects.

1. Psychology - Nature of
thought
THOMAS GOUARD

2. Thinking, or cognition
(From a Latin word meaning “to know”), can be defined as mental activity that goes
on in the brain when a person is processing information---organizing it,
understanding it, and communicating it to others

3. Mental imagery
Mental images are representations for objects or events used in mental activities

4. Concepts
 Ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities.
 People use concepts to think about objects or events without having to think
about all the specific examples of the category.
 Concepts defined by specific rules or features are called formal concepts, and are
quite rigid.
 Natural concepts- concepts people form not as a result of a strict set of rules, but
rather as the result of experiences with these concepts in the real world

5. Prototype
A concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of the concept

6. Problem solving

7. Problem solving - Decision making
 Occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.
 Problems range from figuring out how to cut a recipe in half to understanding
complex mathematical proofs to deciding what to major in at college.
 Problem solving is one aspect of decision making, or identifying, and choosing
among several alternatives.

8. Problem solving - Decision making

9. Problem solving - Trial and error
 Also known as a mechanical solution. Trial and error refers to trying one solution
after another until finding one that works

10. Problem solving - Algorithms
Specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems. Algorithms
will always result in a correct solution, if there is a correct solution to be found, and
you have enough time to find it.

11. Problem solving - Heuristic
 Or “Rule of thumb” is a simple rule that is intended to apply to many situations.
 (Example)
 If a student is typing a paper in a word-processing program and wants to know
how to format the page, he or she could try to read an entire manual on the word-
processing program. That would take a while. Instead, the student could use an
Internet search engine or type “format” into the help feature’s search program.
Doing either reduces the amount of information the student will have to look at to
get an answer.

12. Different types of Heuristics
 Representativeness-Used for categorizing objects and simply assumes that any
object (or person) that shares characteristics with the members of a particular
category is also a member of that category.
 Availability-Based on or estimation of the frequency or likelihood of an event
based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it
is for us to think of related examples.

13. Availability vs. Representativeness

14. Different types of Heuristics
Work backward from the goal- A useful one that does work much of the time.
(Example) Finding a shorter route to achieve goal, such as using a GPS, smartphone to
find a location. Used for math problems also!
Subgoals- A goal broken down into subgoals, in order to make the final solution
easier to reach.
Insight- When the solution to a problem seems to come suddenly to mind.
 “aha!” moments when solution seems to appear in a flash.
 Usually based on reorganization of information.

15. Problem solving - Problems
 Functional fixedness- Thinking about objects only in terms of their
typical uses. (Example) A butter knife is only used for buttering bread!
Wrong! It can be used to tighten a screw as well : )
 Mental set- The tendency for people to persist in using
problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past.
 Confirmation bias- The tendency to search for evidence that fits
one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence to the contrary.

16. Creativity
 Solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways.

17. Creativity
 Convergent thinking- a style of thought that attempts to consider all available
information and arrive at the single best possible answer
 Divergent thinking- The reverse of convergent thinking
(Examples) Brainstorming, Keeping a journal, Freewriting, and Mind or
Subject mapping

18. Intelligence
 The ability to learn from one’s experience, acquire knowledge, and use resources
effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems

19. Theories of intelligence
Spearman’s G Factor: intelligence comprises two different abilities
 G factor: general intelligence
 S factor: Specific intelligence
Sternberg’s triarchic theory: intelligence comprises three different aspects
 Analytical- Ability to break down into component parts, or analysis, for problem
solving
 Creative- Dealing with and different concepts, and coming up with new ways of solving
problems
 Practical- Best described as “street smarts”, or the ability to use information to get
along in life

20. Theories of intelligence
Gardner’s multiple intelligences: Overall intelligence comprises nine different types
 Verbal/linguistic, Musical, Logical/mathematical, Visual/spatial, Movement,
Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist, Existentialist (a candidate intelligence)

21. Measuring intelligence
 First formal test created by Alfred Binet and Theodor Simon to help identify
French students who needed more help with learning
Intelligence quotient (IQ)- an intelligence test score that is obtained by dividing
mental age, which reflects the age-graded level of performance as derived from
population norms, by chronological age and multiplying by 100
IQ=MA/CA X 100 (IQ=15/10 X 100 = 150)
 Stanford- Binet Intelligence Scales yield an IQ score
 Allows testers to compare intelligence levels of people from different age groups

22. Measuring intelligence
Tests
 Binet’s Mental Ability Test- Key element to be tested was child’s mental age
 Stanford – Binet- Uses a variety of verbal and nonverbal subtests to provide an overall
estimate of intelligence and scores related to five areas of cognition
 Wechsler Tests- Uses a variety of verbal and performance subtests to provide an overall
score of intelligence and index scores related to four specific cognitive domains.

23. Test constructed
 Reliability- Producing consistent results each time it is given to the same
individual or group of people.
 Validity- The degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to
measure.
Standardization- The process of giving the test to a large group of people that
represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed.
 Norms- The scores from the standardization group
 Normal curve- Distribution in which the scores are the most frequent around the
mean, or average, and become less and less frequent the further from the mean
they occur.

24. Test constructed
Deviation IQ scores- Based on the normal curve distribution
 IQ is assumed to be normally distributed with a mean IQ of 100 and a typical
standard deviation of about 15 (the standard deviation can vary according to the
particular test).
 IQ of 130 would be two standard deviations above mean
 IQ of 70 would be two standard deviations below the mean

25. Test constructed
 Cultural bias- People raised in a different culture, or even a different economic
situation, from the one in which the designer of an IQ test is raised are not likely
to perform well on such a test---not to mention the difficulties of taking a test that
is written in an unfamiliar language or dialect.
 Usefulness of IQ tests- IQ tests are generally valid for predicting academic success
and job performance - Neuropsychology Sheds Light on head injuries

26. Intellectual Disability
A person exhibits deficits in mental abilities, which is typically associated with an IQ
score approximately two standard deviations below the mean on the normal curve,
such as below 70 on a test with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15
 Adaptive behavior is severely deficient for a person of a particular chronological
age
 Formerly known as mental retardation or developmentally delayed
 Can vary from mild to profound

27. Intellectual Disability
 Causes of developmental delay include deprived environments, as well as
chromosome and genetic disorders, alcohol, dietary deficiencies and toxins in the
environment.

28. Giftedness
 The 2% of the population that fall on the upper end of the normal curve; typically
possessing an IQ of 130 or above.
 Stanford University psychologist Lewis Terman was able to demonstrate not only
that his gifted children were not more susceptible to mental illness than the
general population, but he was also able to show that they were actually more
resistant to mental illnesses than those of average intelligence.
 Terman’s study was also critized for a lack of objectivity, because he became too
involved in the lives of his “Termites” as they came to be called.

29. Giftedness
 Emotional intelligence- The accurate awareness of and ability to manage one’s
own emotions to facilitate thinking and attain specific goals, and the ability to
understand what others feel.

30. Language
A system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an infinite number of
meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others.
 Grammar- The system of rules governing the structure and use of a language
 Phonemes- The basic units of sound in a language
 Morphemes- The smallest units of meaning within a language
 Syntax- A system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically
correct sentences.

31. Language - continued
 Semantics- Rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences.
 Pragmatics- The practical aspects of communicating with others, or the social
“niceties” of language.

32. Language and thought
 Linguistic relativity- The words people use determine much of he way in which
they think about the world around them.
 Cognitive universalism- Theory that concepts are universal and influence the
development of language, rather than linguistic relativity.