Plastic is a polymer material made from carbon and hydrogen that can be molded into shapes when heat and pressure are applied. Early plastics like celluloid and Bakelite were developed in the 1800s-1900s, but plastic use expanded in the 20th century. Plastics can be thermoplastics, which can be remelted and reshaped, or thermosets, which set permanently after initial molding. Common plastics are made through polymerization of monomers into chains or networks and have properties like strength, durability, and electrical insulation. Plastics are widely used for their processability, low cost, and ability to be formed into complex shapes.

4. introduce a chemical material called vinyl chloride monomer transformed in white powder (polyvinyl chloride - PVC)

7. won a bronze medal at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London

8. produced a hard but flexible transparent material, which he called Parkesine from an organic material derived from cellulose

9. claimed that this new material could do anything rubber was capable of, but at a lower price

14. a chemical reaction in which high-molecular-mass molecules are formed from monomers3. Monomer : a single molecule or a small molecule that may become chemically bonded to other monomers to form a polymer. 4. Homopolymer : polymeric materials which consist of polymer chains made up of single repeating units.

17. The chains of molecules bonded by a weak force and flexible causes the carbon bondage to move and rotating in the chains.

19. The chains arrangement are randomize and not in certain geometry pattern.

21. Causing the molecule to packed together and increased the forces between them, with higher strength, rigid and brittle.

24. it is occurs between molecules or monomers contains carbon bonding when temperature, pressure and certain catalyst are given

25. examples : i. Polyester are formed from ethylene polymerization ii. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) b. Condensation Polymerization  step reaction involves between two monomers with the elimination of a simple by product, such as water, hydrogen chloride, etc  it is occurs when two monomer substances react together to produce polymer and small molecules (usually water) will be expelled

28. They can be softened, hardened or resoftened repeatedly by application of heat.

29. Thermoplastics are solids at room temperature , melted or softened by heating, placed into a mold and then cooled to give the desired shape.

32. can be attached/ jointed using heat and pressure

33. not liquidify but flow at appropriate pressure and heat for injection moulding

34. when blowed, acts like glasses, can be shape as bottles and round by using pressure or vacuum technique

36. Once they have been set and hardened, they cannot be remelted and returned to their original state (cannot be recycled or reused)

37. The three-dimensional cross-linked structure :

39. after the first formation, no changes will happen eventhough heat and pressure applied

42. Such as :1. Injection Moulding Process 2. Extrusion Moulding Process 3. Blow Moulding Process 4. Transfer Moulding Process 5. Compression Moulding Process 6. Rotational Moulding Process 7. Thermoforming Process 9. Calendaring Process 10.Casting Process

43. Injection Moulding Process 1. The basic concept of injection moulding machine is a heat-softened thermoplastic material is forced by a screw-drive cylinder into a relatively cool mould cavity that gives the plastic the desired shape. 2. The mould usually made from tool steels or beryllium cuprum and can be multiple cavities so that more than one component can be injected in every cycle of process. 3. It was the fastest process and widely used. 4. Figure 5 shows the typical components of injection moulding machine.

44. 5. Work principles : i. the raw material (resins or pellets) are inserted into the hopper ii. under gravity manipulating, the resins enter the injection channel which surrounded by heater iii. certain temperature applied depends upon types of material used, usually around 75˚C - 95˚C for smaller products and 120˚C - 260 ˚C for larger products iv. when the resins becomes softer, it will be injected using weither the reciprocating-screw or torpedo plunger v. the softened plastics will be enter directly to the nozzle and enters the mould cavity vi. to ensure the mould was fully injected, pressure between 35MPa to 40 MPa are used

45. vii. the product will be solidify in the mould cavity under water cooling cycle through the mould viii. after that, the injector will be pulled back, the mould then opened and the products will be retrieved from the mould ix. the connecting opener will retrieved the product where the ejector pins will ejected the product from the mould

46. 6. The advantages : the injector mould usage are faster than pressure mould(torpedo plunger) ii. mould cost are lower because of the simplicity iii. various shape, intricate or thinner products can be produced iv. high quality parts can be produced at a high production rate v. the process has relatively low labour costs vi. good surface finishes can be produced on the mouldedpart vii. the process can be highly automated.

47. 7. The disadvantages: sink = caused by moulding temperature or the pressure are higher ii. flashing = caused by unfitted mould iii. bubble = caused by cold mould or the pressure are too low iv. uncompleted moulding = the material did not enter the mould fully, example : small gates weld line = caused by cold mould, low moulding temperature and time for injection are too fast vi. not economical for small production vii. certain mould only for certain product viii. high cost of machine means that a large volume of parts must be made to pay for the machine ix. the process must be closely controlled to produce a quality products.

48. Extrusion Moulding Process 1. A process that supplies a continuous stream of thermoplastic material/ products with equally cross-section where it is directly produced through a shaping tool or to some other subsequent shaping process (dies) placed directly on the end of the extrusion machine.

49. 2. Work principles : i. the pellets or resins are inserted into the hopper ii. the material then fed into the heated cylinder by rotating screw iii. when the material become softer, it will be forced continuously by the rotating the screw ram iv. the products or outcomes are formed into continuous shape v. after the product exiting from the die, it will be cooled by air (air-blast system), water (water-bath system) or become cold by interact will cold roll surface where then it will be solidifies while rolling vi. extruded products such as pipe, rod, etc, extrude this way because it can be curved or bended after extruded with hot water by sinking it in it

50. 3. The advantages : i. continuous extrusion ii. accurate measurement iii. good finishing iv. economical for mass production 4. The disadvantages : i. the dies are easily wear out ii. need to be closely controlled iii. thermosetting materials are not suitable because it solidifies quickly

51. Blow Moulding Process 1. It is suited for the manufacture of bottles and other simple hollow shaped parts, from a preformed plastic tube. 2. It is a process producing thermoplastic products using injection or extrusion method where the material are softened will be injected or extruded into the mould and then blowed with air. 3. It is a cylinder or tube of heated plastic called a parison is placed between the moulds. The mould is closed to pinch off the ends of the cylinder and compressed air is blown in, forcing the plastic against the walls of the mould.

52. 4. Work principles for extrusion blow moulding method : i. the resins or pellets are inserted into the hopper ii. with gravity manipulating, the materials enter the injection or extrusion chamber or cylinder which surrounded with heater iii. when the materials become softened (plasticizers), it will be injected or extruded using screw rotator or torpedo plunger iv. the hot and softened material called parison v. the materials will be flow straight to the nozzle and enter the mould cavity vi. top of the parison will be cutted off using a blade vii. the air then blowed into the parison through a cavity at the top of the mould

53. ix. after that the mould will opened and the product will be retrieved x. the connecting opener will retrieved the products using ejector pin to eject the product out from the mould viii. the plastic will be cooled, then solidified in the mould under water cooling system cycling in the channels in the mould

54. 5. Work principles for stretch blow moulding method : i. the plastic is first moulded into a "preform" using the injection molded process ii. these preforms are produced with the necks of the bottles, including threads (the "finish") on one end iii. these preforms are packaged, and fed later (after cooling) into an blow molding machine iv. in this process, the preforms are heated (typically using infrared heaters) above their glass transition temperature, then blown using high pressure air into bottles using metal blow moulds v. usually the perform is stretched with a core rod as part of the process

55. vi. the stretching of some polymers, such as PET (polyethylene terephthalate) results in strain hardening of the resin, allowing the bottles to resist deforming under the pressures formed by carbonated beverages 6. The advantages : i. it does not need the finishing or tidying ii. various of products, intricate or thinner can be produce 7. The disadvantages : i. not economical for small production ii. certain mould only for certain product

56. Transfer Moulding Process 1. It is a process where the moulding compound is first softened by heat in a transfer chamber and then is forced under high pressure into one or more mould cavities for final curing. 2. In this process, the resin is not fed directly into the mould cavity but into a chamber outside the mould cavities. When the mould is closed, a plunger forces the plastic resin from the outside chamber through a system of runners and gates into the mould cavities. 3. It is also used for moulding thermosetting plastics such as the phenolics, ureas, melamines and alkyds. 4. The plastic material flowing process into the mould causing the heat transferred equally and quickens the chemical reaction for cross linking or curing.

57. 5. Work principles : i. the resins were placed in a chamber (preclosedmould) outside the mould cavity forming a preformed plastic shape ii. then heated at certain temperature where it will be plasticize iii. when it softened, it then forced into the mould cavity (closed mould) as hot melt plastic material by a plunger through a system of runners and gates iv. then let it cooled to solidified v. after the plastic has cured, the plunger is removed and the mould cavity then opened vi. the parts is then ejected by ejector pin and removed the plastic parts from the mould

58. 6. The advantages : i. the solidifies timing for transfer moulding are faster than compression moulding ii. the inserting timer are shorter because of the usage of bigger preformed material which can be heatened quickly iii. this process is suitable to form parts that need small metal insertened because the plastic material entering the mould cavity in stages without using higher pressure iv. intricate shape and with variation of bigger cutting can be produced v. no flash is formed during moulding and the moulded part requires less finishing vi. many parts can be made at the same time by using a runner system 7. The disadvantages : i. losing material in flowing channel ii. mould cost are higher than compression mouldingmould

59. Compression Moulding Process 1. It is a process where two parts mould combined together under one compression and then formed a cavity accordingly to the component shape. 2. In the process, before the combined, the resin (thermosets) may be preheated, is loaded into a hot lower part of the mould containing one or more cavities. The upper part of the mould is forced down on the resin and then applied pressure and heat melts the resin and forces the liquefied plastic into filling the cavities forming the needed component. 3. Many thermosetting resins such as the phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde and melamine formaldehyde resins are formed into solid parts by the compression moulding process. 4. The formation is prepared under certain pressure by using upper part of the mould. This is similar to forging process for metal and facing flashing problem where in need for trimming or cutting process.

60. 5. Work principles : i. the materials inserted into the mould as preformed powdered shape because of heat and pressure ii. the preheated material is loaded into a hot mould containing the cavity iii. the upper part of the mould is forced down on the plastic resin, pressure and heat are then applied, forces the liquified plastic to fill the cavity iv. continued heating is required to complete the cross-linking of the thermosetting resin v. then the part is ejected from the mould

61. 6. The advantages : i. mould costs are low ii. short flow of material reduces wear and abrasion on moulds iii. production of large parts is more feasible iv. more compact moulds are possible v. expelled gases from the curing reaction (cross-linking process) are able to escape during the mouldingprocess 7. The disadvantages : i. complicated part configurations are difficult to make with this process ii. inserts may be difficult to hold to close tolerances iii. flash must be trimmed from molded parts

62. Rotational Moulding Process 1. It is a process to forming big hollow component in small or average quantities where a thin metal mould consists of two separated parts and designed to rotating in two axis which 90 to each other. 2. Work principles : i. loading a measured quantity of polymer (usually in powder form) into the mould ii. the mould then heated in an oven whilst it rotates, until all the polymer has melted and adhered to the mold wall iii. by that homogeneous layer with similarity/ accuracy thickness will be formed accordingly to the mould shape iv. the material/ product are cooled while the machine rotated before removed it from the mould by bringing the mould to the cooling station where water are sprayed to the mould v. the mould then brought to the last station where the product will be removed from the mould

63. 3. This process only limited for materials that has low melting temperature in small quantities and protype production such as : a) Polyethylene b) Polypropylene c) Polyvinyl Chloride

64. Thermoforming Process 1. It is a process when a heated plastic sheet is forced into the contours of a mould by heat and pressure or vacuum. 2. Mechanical pressure may be used with mating dies or a vacuum may used to pull the heated sheet into an open die. Air pressure may also be used to force a heated sheet into an open die. 3. There are several categories of thermoforming, including vacuum forming, pressure forming, twin-sheet forming, drape forming, free blowing, and simple sheet bending.

65. 4. Work principles for vacuum forming method : i. the plastic sheet/ material was placed in between the opened mould and the heating coils by clamping it to the moveable clamper ii. then the sheet was brought closer to the coils to softened it, usually placed on top of the machine iii. when the sheet are softened enough, the clamper with sheet back to its place and in the same time the mould which usually placed below the clamper moving up towards the softened sheet iv. the air between the sheet and the mould then are gasped out or vacuumed causing the sheet to fit tightly to the mould which the air holes can be seen in the opened mould v. then air are blowed to separated the forming sheet and mould and in the same time cooled the product vi. the mould then moved downward to its original place and the formation that occurs from the sheet are the product that need to be trimmed or cut off

66. 5. The advantage : low in mould cost because it can be formed using plaster, thermosetting plastic, wood or aluminium 6. The disadvantage : hollowed or opened space components cannot be produced because of the different pressure when the forming process occurs. 7. Materials that can be used : a) Polystyrene b) Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) c) Polyvinyl Chloride d) Polypropylene e) Polyethylene

67. 8. Applications :  used to formed plastic sheets for certain shape such as : - food packaging - yogurt package - motorcycle fairing - vehicles bumper

68. Casting Process 1. It is a process by the use of a liquid or powder material that is shaped without the application of significant pressure. 2. Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material such as a suspension of minerals as used in plastic is introduced into a mould, allowed to solidify within the mould, and then ejected or broken out to make a fabricated part. 3. For thermoplastics, liquid monomer is poured into the mould and, with heat, allowed to polymerize in place to a solid mass. 4. For thermosets, they are poured into a heated mold wherein the cross-linking reaction completes the conversion to a solid. 5. Casting is used for making parts of complex shape that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods, such as cutting from solid material. 6. Encapsulation and potting are terms for casting processes in which a unit or assembly is encased or impregnated, respectively, with a liquid plastic which is subsequently hardened by fusion or chemical reaction.

69. Calendaring Process 1. It is a process to produced sheets or films by passing the soft or half gel thermoplastic materials through a number of pairs of heated rollers which the heat and pressure are applied to the materials and the rolls in combination are called calendars. 2. Usually this process applied in stages of rolling before final products with certain thickness achieved. 3. Materials used : PVC and copolymers that contains Vinyl Chloride. 4. The thickness of products between 0.05 – 0.7mm and with width upto 1m.

70. 5. Work principles : i. polymer powders, adhesives and other additives were mix in normal condition ii. stirred in closed heated mixture iii. the softened or half gel materials from the mixture then masticated between two heated rolls that squeeze it out into a film or sheet iv. the heated sheet or film then trimmed and then passes around one or more additional rolls (calendars) before being stripped off as a continuous film 6. The calendres contains with 3 to 4 rollers made of hardened steel, steel covered with fiber or cast irons. 7. The calendering rollers has polished surface and the cylinders have drilled holes to channeled heated liquid, oil or water.