Chapter 20 scientific revolution
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The document summarizes key aspects of the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment period in Europe. It discusses early scientific theories from Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler that challenged the geocentric model. Isaac Newton then used the scientific method and mathematics to develop theories of gravity and expand on earlier work. During the Enlightenment, philosophers such as Voltaire and Rousseau applied principles of reason and natural rights to critique traditions and argue for reforms. This period saw advances in fields like philosophy, science, and political thought that emphasized rational thought over religious authority and tradition.
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Scientific Revolution
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2. It references models by David Landes and W.W. Rostow that identify prerequisites for take-off, such as agricultural increases allowing population growth and freeing labor.
3. Science and technology, like improvements to waterwheels, cotton machinery, and Watt's steam engine, driven by scientific practices and theories, were keys to productivity growth during the take-off period.
Boxer Rebellion
The Boxer Rebellion was an uprising in China in 1900 led by the Righteous and Harmonious Fists secret society, also known as the Boxers, who sought to drive foreign influence from China. Angry mobs killed hundreds of foreigners during the rebellion. While the Chinese government secretly supported the Boxers, an international police force composed of troops from imperialist powers eventually crushed the rebellion. The rebellion encouraged Chinese nationalism despite its failure.
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The document provides background information on the Crusades:
Pope Urban II called for the Crusades in the 11th century to retake the Holy Lands from the Seljuk Turks. He hoped this would unite Christianity and increase the power and prestige of the Church. Thousands answered the call for religious and political reasons. The Crusades had mixed success in retaking lands but ultimately failed in their goal. They led to increased trade and the rise of stronger centralized monarchies in Europe.
Unit 6 lesson 3 manchu dynasty power point
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The crusades ppt
The Crusades were a series of military expeditions launched by European Christians to recapture the Holy Land from Muslim rule between 1095-1291 CE. They were called by Pope Urban II in response to a Byzantine request for aid against invading Seljuk Turks and to recover Jerusalem and the Holy Land. While the Crusaders had some successes in capturing Jerusalem and establishing Crusader states, they ultimately failed to permanently hold the Holy Land and their actions weakened relations between Christians, Jews and Muslims while also weakening the Byzantine Empire.
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The document summarizes the Ming Dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644. Some key aspects include:
- The Ming Dynasty was established after the Mongol Yuan Dynasty lost the Mandate of Heaven.
- The Ming Dynasty saw a period of economic and cultural prosperity in China, with a large population and advances in agriculture, industry, arts, and naval exploration.
- However, corruption and natural disasters in the 17th century weakened the Ming and led to its eventual collapse, with the Manchu people establishing the Qing Dynasty in China in 1644.
Absolutism
This document discusses the development of absolute monarchy in Europe from the 16th to 18th centuries. It describes how monarchs asserted divine right to rule and centralized power by growing bureaucracies. Religious conflicts weakened the Holy Roman Empire and led to the Peace of Westphalia, recognizing independent states. The English Civil War established constitutional monarchy with shared power between monarch and parliament. Louis XIV ruled France absolutely but weakened it financially. Conflicts between Austria and Prussia continued into the Seven Years' War. Peter the Great modernized Russia by westernizing reforms.
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The document discusses independence movements in Latin America influenced by the American and French Revolutions in the late 1700s. It summarizes that Toussaint L'Ouverture led the Haitian revolution which abolished slavery and established independence, while figures like Miguel Hidalgo and Simon Bolivar led revolutions against Spanish rule in Mexico and South America respectively. The Monroe Doctrine is also summarized, establishing U.S. opposition to future European colonization in the Americas.
The Byzantine Empire
The document summarizes the history of the Byzantine Empire. It began as the eastern half of the Roman Empire after Diocletian split the empire in 284 AD. Constantine rebuilt the city of Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople and making it the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. Under Justinian in the 6th century, the Byzantine Empire reconquered much of the territory of the old Western Roman Empire before losing it again. The Byzantine Empire lasted until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453.
Absolutism and revolution
This document provides an overview of absolutism in Europe between the 1400s and 1700s. It discusses how absolute monarchs consolidated power by claiming divine right to rule without limits and centralized control over society. Specific sections cover the growth of absolutism in Spain under the Hapsburgs, the reign of Louis XIV in France and his centralization of power, the Thirty Years War in the Holy Roman Empire, and the limits placed on English monarchs by Parliament. Absolute rulers like Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great also expanded Russian territory and reformed society along more Western lines.
The american revolution
The American Revolution can be summarized as follows:
1) The Revolution was a period from 1763-1783 that involved not just the war for independence but also the colonists' transition from seeing themselves as British subjects to an independent American nation.
2) The war officially lasted from 1775-1781, beginning with the battles of Lexington and Concord and ending with the British surrender at Yorktown.
3) The Treaty of Paris in 1783 officially recognized American independence and ceded territory east of the Mississippi River to the new United States.
Italian Renaissance Society and the Revival of the Money Economy
The big social and economic changes that the city states of Venice, Milan, and Florence began called the Italian Renaissance.
22.2 the enlightenment in europe
The document summarizes key thinkers and ideas during the Enlightenment period in Europe. It describes Thomas Hobbes's view of strong central government and absolute monarchy. John Locke believed in natural rights and that government's power comes from the consent of the people. Other thinkers mentioned include Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Beccaria, Wollstonecraft, and Mary Shelley, along with some of their central beliefs and contributions to political philosophy and society.
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Italian Renaissance Society and the Revival of the Money Economy
Italian Renaissance Society and the Revival of the Money Economy
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Scientific revolution
The document discusses the Scientific Revolution that occurred between the 16th and 18th centuries. It overthrew the Aristotelian worldview and established new scientific methods and theories. Key figures discussed include Copernicus, who proposed a sun-centered model of the universe; Galileo, who made discoveries with the telescope and challenged Aristotelian physics; and Newton, who formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation. The Scientific Revolution established the modern scientific community and view of the universe as operating by natural laws discoverable through reason and experimentation. It also influenced the Enlightenment period, where thinkers applied scientific rationalism to critique the old regime and advocate progress, equality, and inalienable rights.
Scientific Revolution
The Scientific Revolution occurred between 1540-1690 and marked a change in both science and thought. Key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton challenged the existing geocentric view of the universe and developed the scientific method. Their work established a heliocentric model of the solar system and formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation. This revolution shifted views on the relationship between science and religion and had wide-ranging impacts on how people understood the natural world.
Scientific revolution
During the Scientific Revolution, a new understanding of the world developed as discoveries led scholars to challenge traditional thought. Figures like Copernicus, Galileo, and Vesalius used the scientific method and observations from tools like the telescope and microscope to prove theories like Copernicus' model of a sun-centered solar system, overturning the church-sanctioned view. This shift to logical, evidence-based thought influenced both scientific inquiry and democratic political ideas.
Scientific revolution
The document discusses the Scientific Revolution and key figures like Copernicus. It explains that the Renaissance and Reformation caused people to question established ideas, like the geocentric view that the Earth is the center of the universe. Copernicus put forth a heliocentric theory that the Earth and planets instead revolve around the sun, contradicting the dominant geocentric theory of his time. The document prompts writing a letter as if from the 1500s responding to Copernicus's controversial book challenging established astronomy.
Scientific Revolution
The Scientific Revolution saw a shift from medieval views of truth based on religious texts to questioning how the universe worked through observation and experimentation. Key figures included Copernicus who proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system with the sun at the center; Kepler who mathematically proved Copernicus' model and formulated laws of planetary motion; and Galileo who used the telescope to observe celestial bodies and support the heliocentric theory through experiments. Newton later established the law of universal gravitation and laws of motion, while the scientific method was developed.
63 scientific revolution
The Scientific Revolution of the 1500s-1600s marked a shift away from merely accepting traditional ideas to making conclusions based on experimentation and observation. Copernicus published a book in 1543 arguing the sun, not Earth, was the center of the universe, contradicting the existing Ptolemaic geocentric model. Galileo built upon this, using a telescope to observe moons orbiting Jupiter which supported the heliocentric theory, though he was later put under house arrest for contradicting the Church. Newton later formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation, proving the existence of gravity through mathematics. The Scientific Revolution established the scientific method of testing hypotheses through experimentation and observation.
AP Scientific Revolution
The Scientific Revolution represented a major change in views of the physical universe that began in the 17th century. Prior medieval science was based on reasoning and tradition rather than experimentation. The Scientific Revolution established new principles of science based on questioning old assumptions, empirical evidence through experimentation and observation, and reason over religious dogma. Major developments included Copernicus establishing a heliocentric model of the solar system, Kepler's laws of planetary motion, Galileo's astronomical observations with the telescope, and Newton's formulation of universal gravitation and the laws of motion.
Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution
The document discusses the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment. It describes how skepticism during this period led to challenges of the medieval world view and the Catholic Church's dominance. Thinkers like Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Newton developed early scientific theories and methods like heliocentrism and the laws of motion through observations and experiments. Their work helped establish skepticism and the scientific method. The Enlightenment furthered ideas of reason, secularism and emphasis on individual liberties which influenced philosophers like Hobbes, Locke, Voltaire and documents like the US Constitution.
Scientific revolution lesson ppt
1) The Scientific Revolution developed during the Renaissance as scientists began questioning traditional beliefs about the natural world that were based on Aristotle and the Bible.
2) Scientists like Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton challenged the geocentric model of the universe and developed the heliocentric model through observations and experiments.
3) Their work established the foundations of the modern scientific method of using experimentation and evidence rather than past authorities to understand the natural world.
The Scientific Revolution
An overview of the Scientific Revolution to go with lesson plans on the subject at the History Teaching Institute at Ohio State University
http://hti.osu.edu/scientificrevolution/lesson_plans
Scientific Revolution Unit 3 Topic 1 Honors World
The document discusses the impact of the Scientific Revolution on political thought. It describes how figures like Copernicus, Galileo and Newton developed early scientific models that challenged the authority of the Catholic Church. Philosophers like Descartes, Hobbes and Locke then incorporated these new scientific ideas, believing that reason and natural laws could be used to explain both the natural world and human society. The Scientific Revolution emphasized observation and experimentation over religious doctrine and helped shift authority from the Church to science and reason.
Renaissance powerpoint
The Renaissance was a period between the 14th and 17th centuries that saw a rebirth of interest in classical learning. Major Italian cities like Florence and Venice became centers of trade and patronage for artists. Humanism emphasized the abilities of humans and the importance of education. Artists began using techniques like perspective and realistic proportions. Famous Renaissance artists included Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and their works like the Pieta, Mona Lisa, and The Last Supper. Literature flourished with Shakespeare's plays. Johannes Gutenberg's printing press made books more widely available. Exploration and scientific discoveries increased European knowledge. The Protestant Reformation began as religious reforms but led to the establishment of new Christian denominations in Europe.
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Chapter 22
The document discusses key developments during the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment era in Europe:
1) In the mid-1500s, scientists like Copernicus, Galileo and Newton began questioning accepted beliefs and developing theories based on experimentation and evidence, marking the beginning of the Scientific Revolution.
2) Thinkers of the Enlightenment like Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau advocated new political ideas like religious tolerance, separation of powers, checks and balances, and consent of the governed.
3) Enlightenment ideas spread through Europe in the 17th-18th centuries, aided by the development of science and influential works such as Diderot's Encyclopedia.
The scientific revolution
The Scientific Revolution began in the mid-1500s as scientists began questioning accepted beliefs and making new theories based on experimentation and observation. This challenged the medieval view that knowledge came from religious texts. Scientists like Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton developed new theories like heliocentrism and the laws of motion and gravity through experimentation and evidence. However, Galileo faced opposition from the Church for his findings. The Scientific Revolution led to the development of the scientific method and new instruments that drove further discoveries in fields like astronomy, anatomy, chemistry, and medicine. These developments were part of the broader intellectual movement of the Enlightenment, which emphasized reason, science, and humanism.
Chapter 20 scientific revolution
This document provides an overview of the Scientific Revolution and its key figures such as Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton. It discusses how prior to this period, most people believed in the geocentric model of the universe described by Greek philosophers. However, the Scientific Revolution involved figures like Copernicus publishing the heliocentric theory in 1543, Kepler using math to prove elliptical planetary motion in 1601, and Galileo supporting Copernicus and facing persecution from the Catholic Church for doing so. Finally, it describes how Newton built upon these earlier thinkers by using the scientific method and mathematics to develop his theory of universal gravitation, helping to establish the heliocentric model and mechanistic view of the universe.
Changing The Paradigm
The document discusses the paradigm shift that occurred during the Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution, where people began thinking critically and questioning established authorities. This led to advances in science through figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Bacon, Descartes, and Newton. It also led to new political philosophies around natural rights and limited government through Enlightenment philosophers like Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau, influencing revolutions in England, America, and France.
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intellectual revolution and society.pptx
the topic is all about the intellectual revolution and how the earth evolves every century and how the ancient or the philosopher used the technology and science in the past, what is the science.
The Worldview Families
This document provides an overview of different worldview families and how they have changed over time:
1. Premodernism held that revelation is the sole source of knowledge and authority comes from divine sources. Revelation was mediated through religious authorities.
2. Modernism emerged during the Enlightenment and held that reason is the source of knowledge and authority comes from society rather than God. Laws were viewed as universal and absolute. It separated the sacred and secular.
3. Postmodernism rejects the notion that humanity is in control of the universe. It views truth as relative and meaning as determined by individuals. It questions Western cultural superiority.
4. Critical social theory seeks to expose oppression and empower the oppressed.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in 18th century Europe that promoted reason, science, and individualism over tradition. Key figures like Locke, Montesquieu, and Voltaire advocated using reason and science to critically examine religion, government, and society. Enlightenment thinkers believed that people could improve society using rational thought. Their ideas influenced governments and revolutions in both America and France.
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The essay discusses the emergence of modern psychology as a science in the late 19th century. Previously, philosophy and physiology studied the mind but it was not until 1879 that psychology emerged as its own field of scientific study. The essay notes how Descartes' philosophical dualism of mind and body, and his theory of the pineal gland influencing interactions, contributed to early understandings. It also discusses how universities became centers for the new "scientific" knowledge and restricted access primarily to elite classes.
Presentation1
The document discusses the Enlightenment Age and key developments during that period. It describes how scientists like Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo advanced empirical methods and challenged the prevailing models of the universe, which led to debates with the Catholic Church. Philosophers of the Enlightenment era, including Locke and philosophers, promoted rational thinking and challenged religious authority. They argued for new political philosophies that asserted citizens' right to reject unjustified authority. The Enlightenment saw both religious and anti-religious innovations as people sought to make faith align with reason. It was also a time of social changes that encouraged widespread ideas like economics, technology, education, and human rights.
Enlightenment
This document provides biographical information about key figures of the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment period from the 16th to 18th centuries. It discusses major scientists like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Harvey, Descartes, Boyle, and Newton and their important scientific discoveries. It also outlines characteristics of the Enlightenment such as rationalism, secularism, use of the scientific method, tolerance, and optimism. Philosophers of the Enlightenment discussed include Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Diderot. Salons and publications like Diderot's Encyclopedie helped popularize new ideas. Some monarchs embraced principles of "enlightened despotism," like
# 3 Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution
The document discusses the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment. It provides learning outcomes about key figures from these periods like Copernicus, Galileo, Bacon, Newton, Hobbes, Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau. It also discusses the shift from the "old science" perspective relying on authorities to the "new science" perspective using observation and experimentation. Finally, it describes how Enlightenment ideas spread through Europe and influenced governments, arts, and the founding of the United States.
Scientific revolution and enlighten
The document provides an overview of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment period in Europe. It discusses key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton, Bacon, and Descartes who challenged the Aristotelian worldview and established the foundations of modern science through empirical methods and mathematics. It also examines Enlightenment philosophers like Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Kant who applied scientific rationalism to critique the old regime and advocate for political and social reform based on natural rights and progress. Salons and publications like the Encyclopedia helped spread Enlightenment ideas, though they also faced censorship from the old order.
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The document discusses the Enlightenment era and several Enlightenment thinkers. It notes that the Enlightenment stressed reason and the power of individuals to solve problems. It discusses how Enlightenment thinkers like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau approached their goals differently due to their backgrounds and environments. While some of their ideas are not used today, they were instrumental in shaping modern society. Baron de Montesquieu in particular helped shape the United States. The document also notes how Enlightenment thinkers challenged authority by speaking their minds and instigating change, despite facing persecution for their views.
Scientific Revolution and The Enlightenment
The Scientific Revolution began a new way of thinking that was secular, rational, based on reason, and believed in progress through study of the natural world. Key figures included Copernicus, who proposed a sun-centered solar system; Kepler, who proved Copernicus right through mathematics; Galileo, who used a telescope to make observations that supported Copernicus; and Isaac Newton, who formulated mathematical laws of motion and gravity. This new scientific thinking challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and led to advances in many fields through empirical study.
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This document discusses works from the Enlightenment period that helped establish modern scientific thought by moving away from religious authority. It summarizes Johannes Kepler's laws of planetary motion, which provided theoretical support for a sun-centered universe, and Galileo Galilei's astronomical observations with a telescope. It also outlines Isaac Newton's Principia, which linked terrestrial and celestial physics under a single set of laws, and Denis Diderot's Encyclopedie, the first work to compile all worldwide research. Finally, it discusses François Quesnay's Economic Table, which applied reason to economics, and Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Women, which called for equality for women.
Essay On Scientific Revolution And Enlightenment
The Scientific Revolution began in the 16th century with Copernicus proposing that the Sun, not the Earth, was the center of the universe. This challenged the geocentric model endorsed by the Catholic Church. Galileo built upon Copernicus' theory with astronomical observations using his telescope. He proved that Copernicus was right, which put him in direct conflict with the Church. Other influential scientists included Tycho Brahe, who made highly accurate observations of planetary motions, and Johannes Kepler, who described the orbits of planets. Isaac Newton then synthesized the work of previous scientists with his law of universal gravitation and laws of motion, establishing classical mechanics.
Consiquences Of Phylosophies Human Mind Developed Beside Revealations
Human philosophies and pagan religions have deviated from divine revelations and led to harmful consequences. Materialist philosophies promoted by figures like Charles Darwin, Karl Marx, and others suggested life emerged through natural processes alone and there is no God or afterlife. These ideas helped justify racism, eugenics policies, and ideologies like Nazism and communism that caused widespread death and suffering. Divine scriptures warn that deviating from monotheistic belief systems leads societies astray and ends badly.
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Chapter 20 scientific revolution
- 1. Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution Chapter 20Chapter 20 Copernicus NewtonGalileo
- 2. Science in the Middle AgesScience in the Middle Ages Most believed the world was flatMost believed the world was flat Most believed theories developedMost believed theories developed by Greek philosophers andby Greek philosophers and scientistsscientists Catholic doctrine had mostCatholic doctrine had most believingbelieving geocentric theorygeocentric theory..
- 3. REASONS FOR SCIENTIFICREASONS FOR SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONREVOLUTION Exploration created need for newExploration created need for new instruments and a desire to discoverinstruments and a desire to discover Printing PressPrinting Press Monarch SupportMonarch Support Royal Society (England)Royal Society (England) Academy of Sciences (France)Academy of Sciences (France)
- 4. Theories aboutTheories about the Universethe Universe Nicolaus CopernicusNicolaus Copernicus publishedpublished heliocentric theoryheliocentric theory in 1543 (year he died)in 1543 (year he died) Johannes Kepler used math formulas to prove planets moved in ellipses in 1601 Galileo Galilei Catholic who supported Copernican theory Inquisition forced him to recant in 1633
- 5. Isaac NewtonIsaac Newton UsedUsed scientific methodscientific method & mathematics& mathematics to write “Principia”to write “Principia” Expanded the ideas of Copernicus,Expanded the ideas of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo usingKepler, and Galileo using calculuscalculus toto explain his ideas about gravity (1687)explain his ideas about gravity (1687)
- 6. Scientific MethodScientific Method Applied to other areas:Applied to other areas: PhilosophyPhilosophy (Bacon, Descartes)(Bacon, Descartes) InstrumentsInstruments (Janssen, Fahrenheit, Celsius)(Janssen, Fahrenheit, Celsius) AnatomyAnatomy (Vesalius, Harvey, Hooke, Jenner)(Vesalius, Harvey, Hooke, Jenner) ChemistryChemistry (Boyle, Priestley)(Boyle, Priestley)
- 7. Effects of ScienceEffects of Science Scientific thought and methodScientific thought and method influenced political theories withinfluenced political theories with the development ofthe development of natural lawsnatural laws Universe was a machineUniverse was a machine Use of reason to solve problemsUse of reason to solve problems Challenge authority and traditionChallenge authority and tradition
- 8. The EnlightenmentThe Enlightenment Chapter 6 Section 2Chapter 6 Section 2
- 9. Age of EnlightenmentAge of Enlightenment God created the universe which was aGod created the universe which was a giant machine that functionedgiant machine that functioned according to fixed laws (Newton’saccording to fixed laws (Newton’s Laws)Laws) DeismDeism denounced organized religiondenounced organized religion as corrupt and exploitiveas corrupt and exploitive Focus on individualism and use ofFocus on individualism and use of reason, not superstitionreason, not superstition
- 10. CORE BELIEFS OFCORE BELIEFS OF PHILISOPHESPHILISOPHES (p. 196)(p. 196) REASONREASON NATURENATURE HAPPINESSHAPPINESS PROGRESSPROGRESS LIBERTYLIBERTY
- 12. Salon LifeSalon Life The minds and middle class ofThe minds and middle class of Europe mingled with the nobilityEurope mingled with the nobility Discussed the new ideas of the eraDiscussed the new ideas of the era Denis DiderotDenis Diderot combined thesecombined these writings and ideas into 28 volumes hewritings and ideas into 28 volumes he called thecalled the EncyclopediaEncyclopedia in 1751in 1751 Neoclassical art and classical MusicNeoclassical art and classical Music
- 13. Approaches to NaturalApproaches to Natural LawLaw Thomas HobbesThomas Hobbes Monarchy was the most stable form of gov’tMonarchy was the most stable form of gov’t People should give up their freedom-SocialPeople should give up their freedom-Social ContractContract John LockeJohn Locke people hadpeople had natural rightsnatural rights from birth, includingfrom birth, including life, liberty, and propertylife, liberty, and property gov’t was developed by humans to protectgov’t was developed by humans to protect those rightsthose rights
- 14. Political ReformsPolitical Reforms In 1748,In 1748, MontesquieuMontesquieu wrote “Spirit ofwrote “Spirit of Laws”Laws” Gov’t should be equally divided amongGov’t should be equally divided among 3 branches of gov’t3 branches of gov’t
- 15. VoltaireVoltaire French Deist and PhilosopheFrench Deist and Philosophe Satire criticized the Church andSatire criticized the Church and the Royal Courtthe Royal Court WroteWrote CandideCandide Exiled to EnglandExiled to England
- 16. RousseauRousseau Rousseau criticized civilizations andRousseau criticized civilizations and institutionsinstitutions Social ContractSocial Contract inspired democraticinspired democratic gov’ts (Differed from Hobbes)gov’ts (Differed from Hobbes) Origin of injustice is possessionsOrigin of injustice is possessions Private interests must come second toPrivate interests must come second to the collective wholethe collective whole
- 17. Enlightened DespotsEnlightened Despots Rulers respected peoples rightsRulers respected peoples rights Frederick II of PrussiaFrederick II of Prussia Catherine II of RussiaCatherine II of Russia Joseph II of AustriaJoseph II of Austria