This document provides an overview of vitamin B and vitamin C. It discusses key topics such as bioavailability, precursors, dose levels and effects, coenzyme action, deficiency and toxicity for specific B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, biotin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, folate). Food sources for each vitamin are also presented. The purpose is to describe the water-soluble vitamins, their roles in the body, and factors that impact their absorption and function.

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The Water-Soluble
Vitamins: B
Vitamins and
Vitamin C
Chapter 10

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The Vitamins – An Overview
• Support nutritional health
• Differences from energy-yielding nutrients
• Structure
• Individual units
• Function
• No energy yielded
• Food contents
• Similarities with energy-yielding nutrients

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Bioavailability
• Amount absorbed and used by body
• Differs from amount in food
• Factors influencing bioavailability
• Efficiency of digestion
• Nutrition status
• Method of food preparation
• Source of nutrient
• Other foods consumed at same time

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Precursors (Provitamins)
• Inactive forms of vitamins
• Converted to active form in body
• Organic
• Can be destroyed during storage or cooking
• Solubility
• Affects absorption, transport, and excretion
• Toxicity
• More is not necessarily better
• Levels higher than UL

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Dose Levels and Effects

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The B Vitamins
• Without B vitamins, the body would lack
energy
• Help body use macronutrients for fuel
• Coenzymes
• Assist enzymes with energy release
• Without coenzyme, enzyme cannot function
• RDAs
• AIs

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Coenzyme Action

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Thiamin
• Part of coenzyme thiamin pyrophosphate
(TPP)
• Assists in energy metabolism
• Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA
• TCA cycle
• Nerve activity and muscle activity
• Average intake meets or exceeds
recommendations

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Thiamin Deficiency and
Toxicity
• Malnourished and alcoholics
• Beriberi
• Dry – affects nervous system
• Wet – affects cardiovascular system
• Toxicity
• No adverse effects
• No UL

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Thiamin in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per
kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories) Food Group Approximate Amount
of Thiamin (milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat 1 oz slice (70 kcal) Grains 0.10
Cornflakes, fortified 1 oz (110 kcal) Grains 0.35
Spaghetti pasta ½ c cooked (99 kcal) Grains 0.12
Tortilla, flour 1 10"-round (234 kcal) Grains 0.35
Broccoli ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Vegetables 0.05
Carrots ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal) Vegetables 0.06
Potato 1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal) Vegetables 0.15
Tomato juice ¾ c (31 kcal) Vegetables 0.10
Banana 1 medium raw (109 kcal) Fruits 0.07
Orange 1 medium raw (62 kcal) Fruits 0.12
Strawberries ½ c fresh (22 kcal) Fruits 0.01
Watermelon 1 slice (92 kcal) Fruits 0.23
Milk 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal) Milk and milk products 0.12
Yogurt, plain 1 c low-fat (155 kcal) Milk and milk products 0.13
Cheddar cheese 1½ oz (171 kcal) Milk and milk products 0.01
Cottage cheese ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) Milk and milk products 0.03
Pinto beans ½ c cooked (117 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0.18
Peanut butter 2 tbs (188 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0.05
Sunflower seeds 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0.04
Tofu (soybean curd) ½ c (76 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0.07
Ground beef, lean 3 oz broiled (244 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0.04
Chicken breast 3 oz roasted (140 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0.07
Tuna, canned in water 3 oz (99 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0.04
Egg 1 hard cooked (78 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0.04
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Pork chop, lean 3 oz broiled (169 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0.96
Soy milk 1 c (81 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0.40
Squash, acorn ½ c baked (69 kcal) Vegetables 0.20

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Riboflavin
• Serves as coenzyme in energy metabolism
• Flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
• Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
• Recommendations
• Deficiency
• Inflammation of membranes
• Destroyed by ultraviolet light and irradiation
• Toxicity
• No UL

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Riboflavin Coenzyme
Illustrated

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Riboflavin in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per
kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories) Food Group Approximate Amount
of Riboflavin
(milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat 1 oz slice (70 kcal) Grains 0.05
Cornflakes, fortified 1 oz (110 kcal) Grains 0.43
Spaghetti pasta ½ c cooked (99 kcal) Grains 0.06
Tortilla, flour 1 10"-round (234 kcal) Grains 0.21
Broccoli ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Vegetables 0.09
Carrots ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal) Vegetables 0.03
Potato 1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal) Vegetables 0.04
Tomato juice ¾ c (31 kcal) Vegetables 0.05
Banana 1 medium raw (109 kcal) Fruits 0.12
Orange 1 medium raw (62 kcal) Fruits 0.06
Strawberries ½ c fresh (22 kcal) Fruits 0.06
Watermelon 1 slice (92 kcal) Fruits 0.07
Milk 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal) Milk and milk products 0.40
Yogurt, plain 1 c low-fat (155 kcal) Milk and milk products 0.53
Cheddar cheese 1½ oz (171 kcal) Milk and milk products 0.18
Cottage cheese ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) Milk and milk products 0.21
Pinto beans ½ c cooked (117 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0.09
Peanut butter 2 tbs (188 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0.08
Sunflower seeds 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0.06
Tofu (soybean curd) ½ c (76 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0.03
Ground beef, lean 3 oz broiled (244 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0.15
Chicken breast 3 oz roasted (140 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0.12
Tuna, canned in water 3 oz (99 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0.07
Egg 1 hard cooked (78 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0.26
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Liver 3 oz fried (184 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 1.70+
Clams, canned 3 oz (126 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0.34
Mushrooms ½ c cooked (21 kcal) Vegetables 0.23

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Niacin
• Two chemical structures
• Nicotinic acid
• Nicotinamide
• Major form of niacin in blood
• Two coenzyme forms – metabolic reactions
• Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
• Carries hydrogens and their electrons
• NADP (the phosphate form)

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Niacin Needs and Results of
Deficiency
• Recommendations
• RDA stated in niacin equivalents (NE)
• Body manufactures from tryptophan
• Only occurs after protein synthesis needs have
been met
• Deficiency
• Pellagra
• Symptoms
• Caused deaths in the U.S. south in the early 1900s

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Niacin-Deficiency Symptom –
The Dermatitis of Pellagra

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Niacin Toxicity
• Naturally occurring sources
• No harm
• Supplements or drugs
• “Niacin flush”
• Potential health benefits of large doses of
nicotinic acid
• Food sources
• Less vulnerable to food preparation losses than
other vitamins

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Niacin in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per
kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories) Food Group Approximate Amount
of Niacin (milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat 1 oz slice (70 kcal) Grains 1.1
Cornflakes, fortified 1 oz (110 kcal) Grains 5.1
Spaghetti pasta ½ c cooked (99 kcal) Grains 1.9
Tortilla, flour 1 10"-round (234 kcal) Grains 3.9
Broccoli ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Vegetables 0.8
Carrots ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal) Vegetables 0.5
Potato 1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal) Vegetables 2.8
Tomato juice ¾ c (31 kcal) Vegetables 1.3
Banana 1 medium raw (109 kcal) Fruits 0.9
Orange 1 medium raw (62 kcal) Fruits 0.5
Strawberries ½ c fresh (22 kcal) Fruits 0.2
Watermelon 1 slice (92 kcal) Fruits 1.0
Milk 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal) Milk and milk products 2.0
Yogurt, plain 1 c low-fat (155 kcal) Milk and milk products 1.4
Cheddar cheese 1½ oz (171 kcal) Milk and milk products 2.1
Cottage cheese ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) Milk and milk products 2.8
Pinto beans ½ c cooked (117 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 1.8
Peanut butter 2 tbs (188 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 5.7
Sunflower seeds 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 3.2
Tofu (soybean curd) ½ c (76 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 2.8
Ground beef, lean 3 oz broiled (244 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 7.6
Chicken breast 3 oz roasted (140 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 16.7
Tuna, canned in water 3 oz (99 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 15.4
Egg 1 hard cooked (78 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 1.3
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Liver 3 oz fried (184 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 12.2
Peanuts 1 oz roasted (165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 4.0
Mushrooms ½ c cooked (21 kcal) Vegetables 3.5

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Biotin
• Coenzyme that carries activated carbon
dioxide
• Critical in TCA cycle
• Delivers carbon to pyruvate to form oxaloacetate
• Gluconeogenesis and fatty acid synthesis
• Breakdown of fatty acids and amino acids
• Widespread in food sources
• Toxicity
• No UL

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Pantothenic Acid
• Part of chemical structure of coenzyme A
• Roles in body
• Recommendations
• AI has been established
• Widespread in foods
• Readily destroyed by freezing, canning, and
refining processes
• Deficiency
• Rare

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Vitamin B6
• Three forms
• Pyridoxal, pyridoxine, and pyridoxamine
• Conversion to coenzyme PLP
• Amino acid metabolism
• Carbohydrate and fatty acid metabolism
• Conversion of tryptophan to niacin or serotonin
• Synthesis of heme, nucleic acids, and lecithin
• Stored exclusively in muscle tissue

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More Facts About B6
• Deficiency
• Symptoms
• Alcohol and isoniazid function as B6 antagonists
• Toxicity
• Neurological damage
• Food sources

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Vitamin B6 in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per
kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories) Food Group Approximate Amount
of Vitamin B6
(milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat 1 oz slice (70 kcal) Grains 0.05
Cornflakes, fortified 1 oz (110 kcal) Grains 0.51
Spaghetti pasta ½ c cooked (99 kcal) Grains 0.01
Tortilla, flour 1 10"-round (234 kcal) Grains 0.03
Broccoli ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Vegetables 0.10
Carrots ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal) Vegetables 0.08
Potato 1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal) Vegetables 0.42
Tomato juice ¾ c (31 kcal) Vegetables 0.20
Banana 1 medium raw (109 kcal) Fruits 0.70
Orange 1 medium raw (62 kcal) Fruits 0.08
Strawberries ½ c fresh (22 kcal) Fruits 0.04
Watermelon 1 slice (92 kcal) Fruits 0.41
Milk 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal) Milk and milk products 0.10
Yogurt, plain 1 c low-fat (155 kcal) Milk and milk products 0.12
Cheddar cheese 1½ oz (171 kcal) Milk and milk products 0.03
Cottage cheese ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) Milk and milk products 0.09
Pinto beans ½ c cooked (117 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0.14
Peanut butter 2 tbs (188 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0.15
Sunflower seeds 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0.24
Tofu (soybean curd) ½ c (76 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0.07
Ground beef, lean 3 oz broiled (244 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0.21
Chicken breast 3 oz roasted (140 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0.52
Tuna, canned in water 3 oz (99 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0.30
Egg 1 hard cooked (78 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0.05
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Prune juice ¾ c (137 kcal) Fruits 0.42
Bluefish 3 o z baked (135 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0.41
Squash, acorn ½ c baked (69 kcal) Vegetables 0.25

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Folate
• Also known as folacin or folic acid
• Primary coenzyme form – THF
(tetrahydrofolate)
• Transfers 1-carbon compounds during
metabolism
• Converts vitamin B12 to coenzyme form
• Synthesizes DNA
• Regenerates methionine from homocysteine

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Folate’s Absorption and
Activation

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More Facts About Folate
• Bioavailability ranges from 50 to 100 percent
• Differences between food sources and
supplements
• Increased need during pregnancy
• Folate disposal
• Secretion by liver into bile
• Enterohepatic circulation
• GI tract injuries hinder absorption

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Effects of Folate Deficiency
• Neural tube defects
• Supplement use during pregnancy
• One month before conception
• Through first trimester
• Fortified grain products
• Congenital birth defects
• Folate plays a role in protecting against heart
disease
• Some cancers

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Spina Bifida – a Neural Tube
Defect

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Decreasing Prevalence of
NTDs since Folate Fortification

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Other Facts About Folate
• Anemia: symptom of deficiency
• Most susceptible to drug interactions
• Toxicity
• Naturally occurring from food sources
• Fortified foods or supplements
• UL has been established
• Food sources
• Heat and oxidation destroy folate

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Folate in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per
kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories) Food Group Approximate Amount
of Folate (micrograms)
Bread, whole wheat 1 oz slice (70 kcal) Grains 15
Cornflakes, fortified 1 oz (110 kcal) Grains 100
Spaghetti pasta ½ c cooked (99 kcal) Grains 49
Tortilla, flour 1 10"-round (234 kcal) Grains 85
Broccoli ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Vegetables 40
Carrots ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal) Vegetables 10
Potato 1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal) Vegetables 15
Tomato juice ½ c (31 kcal) Vegetables 38
Banana 1 medium raw (109 kcal) Fruits 23
Orange 1 medium raw (62 kcal) Fruits 40
Strawberries ½ c fresh (22 kcal) Fruits 15
Watermelon 1 slice (92 kcal) Fruits 8
Milk 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal) Milk and milk products 15
Yogurt, plain 1 c low-fat (155 kcal) Milk and milk products 25
Cheddar cheese 1½ oz (171 kcal) Milk and milk products 10
Cottage cheese ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) Milk and milk products 15
Pinto beans ½ c cooked (117 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 158
Peanut butter 2 tbs (188 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 30
Sunflower seeds 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 70
Tofu (soybean curd) ½ c (76 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 55
Ground beef, lean 3 oz broiled (244 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 10
Chicken breast 3 oz roasted (140 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 5
Tuna, canned in water 3 oz (99 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 5
Egg 1 hard cooked (78 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 20
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Lentils ½ c cooked (115 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 180
Asparagus ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Vegetables 130
Orange juice ¾ c fresh (84 kcal) Fruits 56

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Vitamin B12
• Vitamin B12 and folate depend on each other
for activation
• Regeneration of methionine
• Synthesis of DNA and RNA
• Individual roles of vitamin B12
• Digestion and absorption
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Intrinsic factor

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Transportation of Vitamin B12
• Transported in blood by specific binding
proteins
• Enterohepatic pathway
• Deficiency common among elderly
• Most due to inadequate absorption
• Pernicious anemia
• Added risk from vegetarian diets
• Anemia of folate deficiency
• Folate masks symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency

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Sources of Vitamin B12
• Food sources
• Found almost exclusively from animal products
• Bioavailability
• Fish and milk
• Toxicity
• No adverse effects
• No UL
• Destruction

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Choline
• Essential nutrient
• Commonly grouped with B vitamins
• Used to make lecithin and acetylcholine
• Manufactured from methionine in body
• Conditionally essential nutrient
• Adequate intake (AI)
• Common sources
• Impact of deficiency not fully understood

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Nonvitamins
• Inositol
• Part of cell membrane structures
• Carnitine
• Transports long-chain fatty acids for oxidation
• PABA
• Bioflavanoids
• Others

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B Vitamin Interactions
• Each B vitamin coenzyme is involved in
energy metabolism
• Directly
• Indirectly
• Deficiencies
• B vitamin deficiencies seldom show up in isolation
• Beriberi and pellagra

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The B Vitamins In Concert
• Toxicities
• Excess eliminated through urine excretion
• Homeostasis disruption
• Toxicities develop
• Food sources
• First choice should be foods rather than
supplements

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Vitamin C as an Antioxidant
• Defends against free radicals
• Loses electrons easily
• Vitamin C recycling
• Protects tissues from oxidative stress
• Disease prevention
• Enhances iron absorption

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Active Forms of Vitamin C

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Vitamin C as a Cofactor
• Cofactor in collagen formation
• Matrix for bone and tooth formation
• Conversion of proline to hydroxyproline
• Cofactor in other reactions
• Hydroxylation of carnitine
• Conversion of tryptophan to serotonin
• Conversion of tyrosine to norepinephrine
• Making hormones

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Other Roles of Vitamin C
• Prevention and treatment of common cold
• Slight but consistent shortening of cold duration
• Deactivates histamine
• Disease prevention and treatment roles
• Being studied
• Stress increases Vitamin C needs
• Adrenal glands release Vitamin C and hormones
into blood

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Vitamin C Intake
• 10 mg prevents overt
symptoms of scurvy
• Absorption maximum
• 200 mg
• Smoking increases
need

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Vitamin C Deficiency
• Notable signs of deficiency
• Gums bleed easily around teeth
• Capillaries under skin break spontaneously
• Scurvy
• Other physical signs
• Psychological signs
• Sudden death from massive internal bleeding

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Symptoms of Vitamin C
Deficiency

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Vitamin C Toxicity
• Supplementation side effects
• Diarrhea
• GI distress
• UL
• Interference with medical regimens
• High doses not recommended with certain
medical conditions

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Food Sources of Vitamin C
• Abundant in fruits and vegetables
• Potatoes
• Vulnerable to heat and oxygen
• Used as antioxidant by food manufacturers

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Vitamin C in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per
kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories) Food Group Approximate Amount
of Vitamin C
(milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat 1 oz slice (70 kcal) Grains 0
Cornflakes, fortified 1 oz (110 kcal) Grains 0
Spaghetti pasta ½ c cooked (99 kcal) Grains 0
Tortilla, flour 1 10"-round (234 kcal) Grains 0
Broccoli ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Vegetables 58
Carrots ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal) Vegetables 5
Potato 1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal) Vegetables 15
Tomato juice ¾ c (31 kcal) Vegetables 33
Banana 1 medium raw (109 kcal) Fruits 11
Orange 1 medium raw (62 kcal) Fruits 70
Strawberries ½ c fresh (22 kcal) Fruits 41
Watermelon 1 slice (92 kcal) Fruits 28
Milk 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal) Milk and milk products 3
Yogurt, plain 1 c low-fat (155 kcal) Milk and milk products 2
Cheddar cheese 1½ oz (171 kcal) Milk and milk products 0
Cottage cheese ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) Milk and milk products 0
Pinto beans ½ c cooked (117 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 2
Peanut butter 2 tbs (188 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0.5
Sunflower seeds 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0.5
Tofu (soybean curd) ½ c (76 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 0
Ground beef, lean 3 oz broiled (244 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0
Chicken breast 3 oz roasted (140 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0
Tuna, canned in water 3 oz (99 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0
Egg 1 hard cooked (78 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 0
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Red bell pepper ½ c raw chopped (20 kcal) Vegetables 90+
Kiwi 1 (46 kcal) Fruits 74
Brussels sprouts ½ c cooked (30 kcal) Vegetables 47

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Vitamin and
Mineral
Supplements
Highlight 10

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Vitamin and Mineral
Supplements, continued
• $24 billion a year industry in United States
• Taken as dietary insurance
• Costly but harmless practice
• Costly and harmful to health practice
• Mostly self-prescribed
• Physician recommendation
• Improving food choices
• Preferred course of action

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Arguments for Supplements
• Correct overt deficiencies
• Support increased nutrient needs
• Certain life stages
• Improve nutrition status
• Improve body defenses
• Reduce disease risks

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Arguments Against
Supplements
• Toxicity
• Supplement users more likely to have excessive
intakes
• May be unrecognized and unreported
• Life-threatening misinformation
• No guarantee of supplement effectiveness
• Unknown needs
• False sense of security

53. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Arguments Against
Supplements, continued
• Other invalid reasons
• Today’s health problems
• Overnutrition
• Poor lifestyle choices
• Bioavailability and antagonistic actions
• Nutrients may interfere with one another’s action
• Make dietary modifications first

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Selection of Supplements
• Follow directions carefully
• Single, balanced vitamin-mineral supplement
• U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP) logo
• Logo assurances
• Two basic questions
• Form
• Contents

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Misleading Claims
• Organic or natural
vitamins
• High potency claims
• Marketing strategy
• Fake vitamins
• “Green” pills
• Stress relief
• Enzymes
• Inactivated in the
stomach
• Cost

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Regulation of Supplements
• Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
• Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act
of 1994
• Enable consumers to make informed choices
• Same general labeling requirements as foods
• Net effect: deregulation of supplement industry

57. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
An Example of a Supplement
Label

58. Stepped Art
Product name
Statement of identity
Descriptive terms
if product meets
criteria
Contents or weight
Supplement facts
panel
The suggested dose
The name, quantity
per tablet, and “%
Daily Value” for all
nutrients listed;
nutrients without a
Daily Value may be
listed below.
All ingredients must be
listed on the label, but not
necessarily in the ingredient
list nor in descending order
of predominance; ingredients
named in the nutrition panel
need not be repeated here.
Name and address of
manufacturer