Characterize decision making as it applies to practicing the art of leadership in schools.
List the several approaches leaders might use to make decisions in schools.
This document discusses trends that will affect how organization development (OD) is practiced in the future. It identifies traditional trends like increasing wealth concentration and globalization. It also notes pragmatic trends like an aging and more diverse workforce. Scholarly trends emphasize understanding, prediction and control. The document concludes that OD will be more embedded within organizations, more technologically enabled, have shorter cycle times, be more interdisciplinary, work with more diverse organizations across cultures, and focus more on ecological sustainability.
The Decision-Making Process
Define decision and decision-making process.
Describe the eight steps in the decision-making process.
Explain the challenges managers face in identifying problems.
Discuss why decision criteria are important in the decision-making process.
Describe how managers develop, analyze, and select alternatives.
Explain what happens during implementation and evaluation.
Planning is a fundamental management function and involves deciding what activities need to be done to accomplish goals, when they will be done, how they will be done, and who will do them. There are different types of planning including formal and informal, operational and strategic, and single-use plans like programs, projects, budgets, and strategies. Effective planning helps organizations efficiently achieve objectives and manage resources and uncertainties. Forecasting is an important part of planning as it allows organizations to anticipate future events and conditions.
This presentation discusses managerial decision making. It defines decision making and outlines the key topics to be covered, including the nature of decision making problems, different decision making situations, models of decision making, steps in the process, barriers, and group decision making. Types of problems include crises, non-crises, and opportunities. Decision making can be programmed or non-programmed. Models include the rational, satisficing, incremental, and garbage can models. The presentation concludes with a summary of the covered topics and an invitation for questions.
Decision Making PowerPoint PPT Content Modern SampleAndrew Schwartz
164 slides include: the 6 C's of decision making, inherent personal and system traps, decision trees, decision making methods and tips, 4 slides on the GOR approach to decision making, common pitfalls in decision making, effective strategies in making decisions, the 8 major decision making traps and how to effectively minimize each, different decision making perspectives, 3 different types of analysis (grid analysis - paired comparison analysis, and cost/benefit analysis), utilizing planning and overarching questions, 4 modes of decision making and 6 factors in decision making plus more.
The document discusses decision making and the managerial decision making process. It describes the nature of managerial problems as crisis, non-crisis, or opportunities. It then outlines the 8 step decision making process as identifying the problem, criteria, weighing criteria, developing alternatives, analyzing alternatives, selecting an alternative, implementing, and evaluating. It discusses types of decisions, conditions of certainty, risk and uncertainty. It also covers decision making styles, biases, and creating effective decisions.
MANAGERIAL CREATIVITY Managerial creativity is that every small step taken by the managers to improve the work they do. Creativity is a process of developing and expressing new ideas that are likely to be useful.
Creativity is about the generation and sharing of ideas.
Creativity is not the monopoly of some special people.
Everyone has the ability to be creative in their own fields.
All of us can use creativity in our day to day work.
We can discover and develop our creativity by learning to think freely. Creativity means generating ideas without any inhibitions.
R Ravindra Kumar has 30 years of experience working for worlds largest Life Insurance Company LIC OF INDIA in India and abroad at Fiji Islands. Presently working as Regional Manager in LIC OF INDIA.
Favored With Psychic Abilities, Ravi has Honed Him To A Level Where He Can Heal And Transform Lives. Engaged With His Profound Occult Knowledge And A Powerful And Selfless Will To Serve, He Extensively Conducts Healing Sessions, Workshops And Offers Remedies For The Karmic Deficits.
As a Coach, Facilitator, Manager and Trainer, He has been Helping Professionals
Achieve their Career Goals since the 1999.. He is having much passion and interest
coaching to Sales Executive, and Management professionals from corporations, as he
is working with employees from all levels of organizations and Internationally Educated
Professionals, as well as students and graduates from colleges and universities.
Throughout his career, he worked with clients of outplacement and career transition
firms, colleges, and community employment centers. In his work, has provided
Coaching and consulting to clients of all levels of organizations - Vice President to
Employees beginning their careers.
Widely travelled Sri Ravindra Kumar is a multilingual leader and Spiritual Mentor with a
wide experience in multi-cultural and global environment. Reading, music,creative
presentations and development of human resources are his areas of special interest.
This document discusses exploratory research design. It defines exploratory research as a type of research conducted for problems that have not been clearly defined. This helps determine the best research design, data collection methods, and subject selection. Exploratory research is flexible and done in fields where little knowledge is available. It aims to discover significant variables and relationships between variables through literature reviews, surveys, and case studies. The results of exploratory research are meant to guide future studies rather than draw definitive conclusions.
This document discusses trends that will affect how organization development (OD) is practiced in the future. It identifies traditional trends like increasing wealth concentration and globalization. It also notes pragmatic trends like an aging and more diverse workforce. Scholarly trends emphasize understanding, prediction and control. The document concludes that OD will be more embedded within organizations, more technologically enabled, have shorter cycle times, be more interdisciplinary, work with more diverse organizations across cultures, and focus more on ecological sustainability.
The Decision-Making Process
Define decision and decision-making process.
Describe the eight steps in the decision-making process.
Explain the challenges managers face in identifying problems.
Discuss why decision criteria are important in the decision-making process.
Describe how managers develop, analyze, and select alternatives.
Explain what happens during implementation and evaluation.
Planning is a fundamental management function and involves deciding what activities need to be done to accomplish goals, when they will be done, how they will be done, and who will do them. There are different types of planning including formal and informal, operational and strategic, and single-use plans like programs, projects, budgets, and strategies. Effective planning helps organizations efficiently achieve objectives and manage resources and uncertainties. Forecasting is an important part of planning as it allows organizations to anticipate future events and conditions.
This presentation discusses managerial decision making. It defines decision making and outlines the key topics to be covered, including the nature of decision making problems, different decision making situations, models of decision making, steps in the process, barriers, and group decision making. Types of problems include crises, non-crises, and opportunities. Decision making can be programmed or non-programmed. Models include the rational, satisficing, incremental, and garbage can models. The presentation concludes with a summary of the covered topics and an invitation for questions.
Decision Making PowerPoint PPT Content Modern SampleAndrew Schwartz
164 slides include: the 6 C's of decision making, inherent personal and system traps, decision trees, decision making methods and tips, 4 slides on the GOR approach to decision making, common pitfalls in decision making, effective strategies in making decisions, the 8 major decision making traps and how to effectively minimize each, different decision making perspectives, 3 different types of analysis (grid analysis - paired comparison analysis, and cost/benefit analysis), utilizing planning and overarching questions, 4 modes of decision making and 6 factors in decision making plus more.
The document discusses decision making and the managerial decision making process. It describes the nature of managerial problems as crisis, non-crisis, or opportunities. It then outlines the 8 step decision making process as identifying the problem, criteria, weighing criteria, developing alternatives, analyzing alternatives, selecting an alternative, implementing, and evaluating. It discusses types of decisions, conditions of certainty, risk and uncertainty. It also covers decision making styles, biases, and creating effective decisions.
MANAGERIAL CREATIVITY Managerial creativity is that every small step taken by the managers to improve the work they do. Creativity is a process of developing and expressing new ideas that are likely to be useful.
Creativity is about the generation and sharing of ideas.
Creativity is not the monopoly of some special people.
Everyone has the ability to be creative in their own fields.
All of us can use creativity in our day to day work.
We can discover and develop our creativity by learning to think freely. Creativity means generating ideas without any inhibitions.
R Ravindra Kumar has 30 years of experience working for worlds largest Life Insurance Company LIC OF INDIA in India and abroad at Fiji Islands. Presently working as Regional Manager in LIC OF INDIA.
Favored With Psychic Abilities, Ravi has Honed Him To A Level Where He Can Heal And Transform Lives. Engaged With His Profound Occult Knowledge And A Powerful And Selfless Will To Serve, He Extensively Conducts Healing Sessions, Workshops And Offers Remedies For The Karmic Deficits.
As a Coach, Facilitator, Manager and Trainer, He has been Helping Professionals
Achieve their Career Goals since the 1999.. He is having much passion and interest
coaching to Sales Executive, and Management professionals from corporations, as he
is working with employees from all levels of organizations and Internationally Educated
Professionals, as well as students and graduates from colleges and universities.
Throughout his career, he worked with clients of outplacement and career transition
firms, colleges, and community employment centers. In his work, has provided
Coaching and consulting to clients of all levels of organizations - Vice President to
Employees beginning their careers.
Widely travelled Sri Ravindra Kumar is a multilingual leader and Spiritual Mentor with a
wide experience in multi-cultural and global environment. Reading, music,creative
presentations and development of human resources are his areas of special interest.
This document discusses exploratory research design. It defines exploratory research as a type of research conducted for problems that have not been clearly defined. This helps determine the best research design, data collection methods, and subject selection. Exploratory research is flexible and done in fields where little knowledge is available. It aims to discover significant variables and relationships between variables through literature reviews, surveys, and case studies. The results of exploratory research are meant to guide future studies rather than draw definitive conclusions.
L 3 strategic planning, concepts, operational planning etcSudhir Upadhyay
This document discusses various types of planning including strategic, operational, corporate, and functional planning. It outlines the key differences between these types of planning such as the activities covered, time periods, approaches, and importance. Strategic planning focuses on long-term goals and objectives while operational planning guides day-to-day operations. Planning allows organizations to anticipate the future, coordinate activities, improve employee morale, and achieve economies. However, planning can also be costly, time-consuming, and fail to account for rapid changes. The document concludes by discussing advantages of strategic management over strategic planning.
The document discusses several theories and approaches for organizational change management including Lewin's force field theory, Kotter's 8-step change model, action research, and organizational development. Lewin's model involves three steps: unfreezing, moving, and refreezing. Kotter's 8 steps build on Lewin's model and include establishing urgency, forming a coalition, creating a vision, communicating the vision, empowering employees, creating short-term wins, consolidating gains, and reinforcing changes. Action research is a data-driven change process involving diagnosis, analysis, feedback, action, and evaluation. Organizational development seeks to improve effectiveness and well-being through planned interventions based on humanistic values.
This document outlines the steps in a group decision making process at a management level. It discusses (1) introducing decision making and identifying group members; (2) examining factors like rational decision making models, barriers to effective decision making, and quantitative/behavioral decision making tools; (3) exploring group decision making formats, their advantages and disadvantages, and tools to improve group decisions. The overall aim is to acquaint students with the decision making process and factors that influence management decisions.
This document discusses various techniques for group decision making, including consensus building methods, brainstorming, and structured processes like nominal group technique, paired choice matrix, criteria rating, and the Delphi technique. Group decision making aims to consider all viewpoints, explore all potential solutions, and reach decisions collaboratively. Key aspects of effective group processes include airing all concerns, anticipating problems, and ensuring inclusive participation from all stakeholders.
The document outlines key aspects of decision making including:
1) The rational decision making process involves 8 steps: identifying the problem, developing alternatives, analyzing alternatives, criteria development, weighting criteria, selecting the best alternative, implementing, and evaluating.
2) Decisions can involve certainty, risk, or uncertainty and bounded rationality limits full rationality.
3) Group decisions have advantages like more complete information but disadvantages like time costs and pressure to conform.
4) Techniques like brainstorming and nominal groups can improve group decision making effectiveness.
This document provides an overview of strategic management concepts from Chapter 9 of an introduction to management textbook. It discusses strategic management as comprising strategic analysis, formulation, and implementation to accomplish long-term goals. Key points covered include the levels of strategy (corporate, business, functional), Porter's five forces model, the BCG matrix for portfolio analysis, corporate strategies like growth and retrenchment, and Porter's framework for business strategies.
Systematic approach to understand present state of organization and Specifies nature of problem and causes that provides basis for selecting strategies that involves systematic analysis of data for organization development.
This document discusses planning and implementing organizational change. It evaluates linear change models and identifies the key elements of an effective implementation plan, including being purposeful, task-specific, integrated, temporal, adaptable, agreed upon, and cost-effective. It presents a project management approach to change involving purpose, goals, planning, monitoring and control processes, and evaluation. Critical success factors for a change plan include having a shared vision, unified management, surfacing concerns, and supporting the change with systems, rewards, and the right people in key roles.
The document discusses frameworks for designing high-performance organizational processes related to communication, decision-making, and teamwork. It covers topics such as effective communication media matching complexity levels, types of organizational decisions, rational models of decision-making, and participative and group decision-making techniques.
This document discusses the benefits and process of strategic planning. It outlines key steps in the strategic planning process including defining mission and goals, stakeholder analysis, and identifying and evaluating strategic options. Benefits of strategic planning include achieving goals and objectives, better use of resources, and identifying new opportunities. Strategic planning can lead to established management direction, improved relations, and enhanced organizational culture. The document advocates for strategic planning processes that are outcome-focused, joined-up, inclusive, flexible, and robust.
This document outlines strategies discussed in Chapter 5 of the 8th edition of the textbook "Strategic Management Concepts & Cases" by Fred R. David. It discusses various types of strategies companies use, including intensive strategies like market penetration and product development, integrative strategies involving vertical and horizontal integration, diversification strategies, defensive strategies such as retrenchment and divestiture, and Porter's generic strategies of cost leadership, differentiation, and focus. Key terms related to strategic management concepts are also defined.
This presentation provides an overview of strategic management. It defines strategy and discusses the different levels of strategy - corporate, business, and functional. It then defines strategic management as the set of management decisions and actions that determine long-term performance, including environmental scanning, strategy formulation, implementation, and evaluation. The presentation outlines the four main steps in strategic management: 1) developing a strategic intent through vision, mission, and objectives, 2) analyzing external and internal environments to formulate strategy, 3) implementing strategies opertationally and changing organizational structure and systems, and 4) evaluating strategy and taking corrective actions.
The document discusses the decision making process for managers. It describes identifying a problem, determining decision criteria and assigning weights to criteria. Managers then develop alternatives, analyze them based on criteria, and select the highest scoring alternative. The document also discusses different types of problems, decisions, and decision making conditions and styles.
This document discusses organizational change and the factors that drive it. It identifies both external factors like technology, customer needs, the economy, and politics, as well as internal factors like changes in management, deficiencies in the existing organization, and the nature of the workforce. It also outlines different levels of change - individual, group, and organizational. Organizational change is inevitable as businesses need to adapt to remain competitive in a dynamic environment. Both external pressures and internal deficiencies can necessitate changes to organizational structure, processes, and strategies.
The document provides an overview of job analysis and training and development. It discusses the various components of job analysis including job descriptions, specifications, task analysis, and job evaluation. It also covers the different aspects of training such as assessing needs, designing programs, types of training including on-the-job and off-site training, and evaluating effectiveness. Recommended readings on management and human resources management are also included.
Research involves systematically gathering knowledge through objective methods. It aims to solve problems by defining issues, formulating hypotheses, collecting and analyzing data, and reporting findings. The key types are descriptive, analytical, applied, fundamental, quantitative, qualitative, conceptual, and empirical. Research requires carefully determining the objectives, scope, design and methods to efficiently obtain reliable results. It is an important process for advancing knowledge across many fields.
The document outlines the third phase of the strategy-making and executing process - crafting a strategy. It discusses that crafting a strategy involves entrepreneurship through identifying new opportunities or improving existing operations. When strategizing, a company studies trends, competitors' actions, and customer needs while exploring business possibilities from new technologies. The CEO, executives, CFO, division managers, and other department heads participate in crafting the strategy. Strategizing is now often a team effort as complex issues require input from various functions and backgrounds to strengthen the strategizing efforts and ensure those implementing it were involved in its crafting.
Organization structure & design by arun vermaArun Verma
The document discusses organizational structure and design. It defines organizational structure as the formal arrangement of jobs within an organization. Organizational design involves decisions about work specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, span of control, centralization/decentralization, and formalization. The document also discusses different types of departmentalization including functional, product, geographic, process, and customer. It examines factors that influence organizational structure such as strategy, size, technology, and environmental uncertainty. Finally, it outlines several common organizational designs including functional, divisional, team, matrix, project, boundaryless, and learning organizations.
This document outlines the strategic planning process for an organization. It discusses that strategic planning involves defining a strategy and allocating resources to pursue the strategy. The strategic planning process consists of three main steps - strategy formulation, strategy implementation, and strategy evaluation. Strategy formulation involves assessing the internal and external environment through a SWOT analysis. Strategy implementation is putting the plan into action by setting short-term goals. Strategy evaluation reviews performance and makes adjustments. Key aspects of the process include defining vision, mission, goals, and department objectives to align the organization.
This document summarizes the key elements of strategic business planning for high performance organizations. It discusses developing a mission statement, conducting a SWOT analysis to identify internal strengths and weaknesses and external opportunities and threats. This includes analyzing critical issues and compiling a critical issues report. The goal is to formulate strategies to guide the organization and address gaps between its current performance and what is needed to respond to internal and external factors. Strategic business planning requires commitment from leadership and involvement of employees to build understanding and commitment to the resulting plan.
The document discusses various theories and models of decision making, including:
1. Classical decision theory which assumes rationality but has limitations like insufficient information. Satisficing and elimination by aspects models provide more realistic approaches.
2. Naturalistic decision making examines real-world decision making in complex situations. Experts recognize patterns rather than compare options.
3. Biases like illusory correlation, overconfidence and hindsight bias can influence decisions. Heuristics provide mental shortcuts but can also lead to biases.
4. Group decision making has benefits from shared expertise but risks like groupthink when consensus is prioritized over alternatives.
L 3 strategic planning, concepts, operational planning etcSudhir Upadhyay
This document discusses various types of planning including strategic, operational, corporate, and functional planning. It outlines the key differences between these types of planning such as the activities covered, time periods, approaches, and importance. Strategic planning focuses on long-term goals and objectives while operational planning guides day-to-day operations. Planning allows organizations to anticipate the future, coordinate activities, improve employee morale, and achieve economies. However, planning can also be costly, time-consuming, and fail to account for rapid changes. The document concludes by discussing advantages of strategic management over strategic planning.
The document discusses several theories and approaches for organizational change management including Lewin's force field theory, Kotter's 8-step change model, action research, and organizational development. Lewin's model involves three steps: unfreezing, moving, and refreezing. Kotter's 8 steps build on Lewin's model and include establishing urgency, forming a coalition, creating a vision, communicating the vision, empowering employees, creating short-term wins, consolidating gains, and reinforcing changes. Action research is a data-driven change process involving diagnosis, analysis, feedback, action, and evaluation. Organizational development seeks to improve effectiveness and well-being through planned interventions based on humanistic values.
This document outlines the steps in a group decision making process at a management level. It discusses (1) introducing decision making and identifying group members; (2) examining factors like rational decision making models, barriers to effective decision making, and quantitative/behavioral decision making tools; (3) exploring group decision making formats, their advantages and disadvantages, and tools to improve group decisions. The overall aim is to acquaint students with the decision making process and factors that influence management decisions.
This document discusses various techniques for group decision making, including consensus building methods, brainstorming, and structured processes like nominal group technique, paired choice matrix, criteria rating, and the Delphi technique. Group decision making aims to consider all viewpoints, explore all potential solutions, and reach decisions collaboratively. Key aspects of effective group processes include airing all concerns, anticipating problems, and ensuring inclusive participation from all stakeholders.
The document outlines key aspects of decision making including:
1) The rational decision making process involves 8 steps: identifying the problem, developing alternatives, analyzing alternatives, criteria development, weighting criteria, selecting the best alternative, implementing, and evaluating.
2) Decisions can involve certainty, risk, or uncertainty and bounded rationality limits full rationality.
3) Group decisions have advantages like more complete information but disadvantages like time costs and pressure to conform.
4) Techniques like brainstorming and nominal groups can improve group decision making effectiveness.
This document provides an overview of strategic management concepts from Chapter 9 of an introduction to management textbook. It discusses strategic management as comprising strategic analysis, formulation, and implementation to accomplish long-term goals. Key points covered include the levels of strategy (corporate, business, functional), Porter's five forces model, the BCG matrix for portfolio analysis, corporate strategies like growth and retrenchment, and Porter's framework for business strategies.
Systematic approach to understand present state of organization and Specifies nature of problem and causes that provides basis for selecting strategies that involves systematic analysis of data for organization development.
This document discusses planning and implementing organizational change. It evaluates linear change models and identifies the key elements of an effective implementation plan, including being purposeful, task-specific, integrated, temporal, adaptable, agreed upon, and cost-effective. It presents a project management approach to change involving purpose, goals, planning, monitoring and control processes, and evaluation. Critical success factors for a change plan include having a shared vision, unified management, surfacing concerns, and supporting the change with systems, rewards, and the right people in key roles.
The document discusses frameworks for designing high-performance organizational processes related to communication, decision-making, and teamwork. It covers topics such as effective communication media matching complexity levels, types of organizational decisions, rational models of decision-making, and participative and group decision-making techniques.
This document discusses the benefits and process of strategic planning. It outlines key steps in the strategic planning process including defining mission and goals, stakeholder analysis, and identifying and evaluating strategic options. Benefits of strategic planning include achieving goals and objectives, better use of resources, and identifying new opportunities. Strategic planning can lead to established management direction, improved relations, and enhanced organizational culture. The document advocates for strategic planning processes that are outcome-focused, joined-up, inclusive, flexible, and robust.
This document outlines strategies discussed in Chapter 5 of the 8th edition of the textbook "Strategic Management Concepts & Cases" by Fred R. David. It discusses various types of strategies companies use, including intensive strategies like market penetration and product development, integrative strategies involving vertical and horizontal integration, diversification strategies, defensive strategies such as retrenchment and divestiture, and Porter's generic strategies of cost leadership, differentiation, and focus. Key terms related to strategic management concepts are also defined.
This presentation provides an overview of strategic management. It defines strategy and discusses the different levels of strategy - corporate, business, and functional. It then defines strategic management as the set of management decisions and actions that determine long-term performance, including environmental scanning, strategy formulation, implementation, and evaluation. The presentation outlines the four main steps in strategic management: 1) developing a strategic intent through vision, mission, and objectives, 2) analyzing external and internal environments to formulate strategy, 3) implementing strategies opertationally and changing organizational structure and systems, and 4) evaluating strategy and taking corrective actions.
The document discusses the decision making process for managers. It describes identifying a problem, determining decision criteria and assigning weights to criteria. Managers then develop alternatives, analyze them based on criteria, and select the highest scoring alternative. The document also discusses different types of problems, decisions, and decision making conditions and styles.
This document discusses organizational change and the factors that drive it. It identifies both external factors like technology, customer needs, the economy, and politics, as well as internal factors like changes in management, deficiencies in the existing organization, and the nature of the workforce. It also outlines different levels of change - individual, group, and organizational. Organizational change is inevitable as businesses need to adapt to remain competitive in a dynamic environment. Both external pressures and internal deficiencies can necessitate changes to organizational structure, processes, and strategies.
The document provides an overview of job analysis and training and development. It discusses the various components of job analysis including job descriptions, specifications, task analysis, and job evaluation. It also covers the different aspects of training such as assessing needs, designing programs, types of training including on-the-job and off-site training, and evaluating effectiveness. Recommended readings on management and human resources management are also included.
Research involves systematically gathering knowledge through objective methods. It aims to solve problems by defining issues, formulating hypotheses, collecting and analyzing data, and reporting findings. The key types are descriptive, analytical, applied, fundamental, quantitative, qualitative, conceptual, and empirical. Research requires carefully determining the objectives, scope, design and methods to efficiently obtain reliable results. It is an important process for advancing knowledge across many fields.
The document outlines the third phase of the strategy-making and executing process - crafting a strategy. It discusses that crafting a strategy involves entrepreneurship through identifying new opportunities or improving existing operations. When strategizing, a company studies trends, competitors' actions, and customer needs while exploring business possibilities from new technologies. The CEO, executives, CFO, division managers, and other department heads participate in crafting the strategy. Strategizing is now often a team effort as complex issues require input from various functions and backgrounds to strengthen the strategizing efforts and ensure those implementing it were involved in its crafting.
Organization structure & design by arun vermaArun Verma
The document discusses organizational structure and design. It defines organizational structure as the formal arrangement of jobs within an organization. Organizational design involves decisions about work specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, span of control, centralization/decentralization, and formalization. The document also discusses different types of departmentalization including functional, product, geographic, process, and customer. It examines factors that influence organizational structure such as strategy, size, technology, and environmental uncertainty. Finally, it outlines several common organizational designs including functional, divisional, team, matrix, project, boundaryless, and learning organizations.
This document outlines the strategic planning process for an organization. It discusses that strategic planning involves defining a strategy and allocating resources to pursue the strategy. The strategic planning process consists of three main steps - strategy formulation, strategy implementation, and strategy evaluation. Strategy formulation involves assessing the internal and external environment through a SWOT analysis. Strategy implementation is putting the plan into action by setting short-term goals. Strategy evaluation reviews performance and makes adjustments. Key aspects of the process include defining vision, mission, goals, and department objectives to align the organization.
This document summarizes the key elements of strategic business planning for high performance organizations. It discusses developing a mission statement, conducting a SWOT analysis to identify internal strengths and weaknesses and external opportunities and threats. This includes analyzing critical issues and compiling a critical issues report. The goal is to formulate strategies to guide the organization and address gaps between its current performance and what is needed to respond to internal and external factors. Strategic business planning requires commitment from leadership and involvement of employees to build understanding and commitment to the resulting plan.
The document discusses various theories and models of decision making, including:
1. Classical decision theory which assumes rationality but has limitations like insufficient information. Satisficing and elimination by aspects models provide more realistic approaches.
2. Naturalistic decision making examines real-world decision making in complex situations. Experts recognize patterns rather than compare options.
3. Biases like illusory correlation, overconfidence and hindsight bias can influence decisions. Heuristics provide mental shortcuts but can also lead to biases.
4. Group decision making has benefits from shared expertise but risks like groupthink when consensus is prioritized over alternatives.
School administrators make many types of decisions that impact students, faculty, and the overall organization. While the rational model of decision-making involves identifying problems, generating alternatives, evaluating options, choosing a solution, implementing it, and evaluating outcomes, administrators often use bounded rationality due to constraints. They may satisfice by choosing acceptable rather than optimal options. Heuristics like availability, representativeness, and anchoring biases also influence decisions. Contextual rationality and procedural rationality further shape the decision process, and intuition plays a role alongside rational approaches.
The document discusses various aspects of decision-making theory including:
- Decision-making involves identifying problems and choosing options to achieve desired outcomes.
- There are three occasions for decision-making: when directed by superiors, when cases are referred, or on one's own initiative.
- Decisions can be programmed, following standard procedures, or non-programmed, requiring a full process to address unique situations.
- A common decision-making model involves identifying issues, choosing a style, developing alternatives, selecting a solution, implementing it, and evaluating outcomes.
Action research is defined as a process where educators study their own teaching practices and student learning to identify areas for improvement. It involves educators reflecting on their instructional methods, collaborating to evaluate strategies, and implementing changes to better serve students. The goal of action research is to continuously enhance teaching and learning outcomes. There are two main types - practical action research focuses on improving specific classroom or school situations, while critical action research has a broader social aim of creating positive change. Effective action research follows a cycle of identifying issues, developing solutions through data collection, analyzing results, planning actions, and reflecting on impacts.
This document summarizes key topics from a course on management and leadership in education. Specifically, it outlines Topic 8 which discusses decision making in schools. It describes decision making as a dynamic process that solves problems but can also create new ones. It then details the classical model of decision making as a multi-step process involving defining the problem, establishing goals, considering alternatives, and selecting the best option. Finally, it provides an overview of the assumptions behind decision making in schools and the general action cycle involved.
The document provides information about the concept of business decision making. It begins with an acknowledgement of those who provided guidance for an assignment. It then discusses various aspects of decision making including defining the problem, setting objectives and criteria, generating alternatives, analyzing alternatives, selecting an alternative, implementing the decision, and evaluating the outcome. Different models and styles of decision making are described. The key steps in rational and bounded rational decision making models are outlined. Barriers to good decision making are also listed.
This document provides an overview of different models of decision making:
1. The classical optimizing model which seeks to make the best decision by considering all alternatives and consequences.
2. The administrative satisficing model which aims to make a satisfactory rather than optimal decision through a multi-step process of defining problems, considering alternatives and consequences, and selecting a satisfactory course of action.
3. The incremental muddling model where decisions are made by comparing alternatives that are similar to the status quo through trial and error.
4. The mixed scanning model which combines elements of the previous models and is guided by an organization's mission to make incremental decisions.
5. A contingency model is proposed to adapt decision making based on
The document recommends that schools assess whether schoolwide behavior programs are needed by forming an improvement team. The team should collect data on areas with frequent problems, monitor implementation of solutions, and may adopt an intervention program if issues persist. Key steps include involving administrators, teachers, and staff on the team; surveying "hot spots"; using efficient data collection; and choosing an intervention that addresses the school's specific behavior goals and resources. The team plays a vital role and needs principal support to select and oversee effective strategies.
Action research is a process where teachers systematically examine their own practices to improve student learning and the classroom environment. It involves identifying an issue, developing a plan to address it, implementing changes, collecting data, analyzing the results, and iterating the process as needed. Benefits include improved teaching practices and collaboration between teachers. Limitations can include lack of time, research skills, and institutional support.
This document discusses decision making and delegation in leadership. It defines decision making as choosing between alternatives to achieve a desired result. Effective decision making involves identifying problems, considering alternatives, and evaluating outcomes. The document also discusses different models of decision making, such as the rational model and "muddling through" model. It outlines steps in the decision making process and factors to consider for delegation, such as trust, expertise, and acceptance of subordinates.
This document discusses various aspects of decision theory including models of decision making, decision trees, decision styles, decision theories, group decision making, and improving decision making. It describes the classical, implicit favorite, and intuitive models of decision making. It also outlines four decision styles - directive, analytical, conceptual, and behavioral. Two major decision theories - classical and behavioral - are explained along with their key aspects. Methods for improving individual and group decision making are also provided.
This document discusses various models and approaches to decision making. It describes Herbert Simon's three stages of decision making as intelligence, design, and choice. It also summarizes Henry Mintzberg's three phases as identification, development, and selection. Classical, behavioral, and Vroom-Yetton normative models of decision making are explained. The benefits of site-based decision making are outlined as improved decision quality, creativity, acceptance, understanding, and judgment.
The document discusses various models and techniques for decision making. It describes the classical and administrative models, with the latter recognizing that managers have bounded rationality and incomplete information. Various steps in decision making are outlined, including recognizing the need, framing the problem, generating alternatives, choosing, implementing, and learning from feedback. Group decision making techniques like brainstorming and the nominal group technique are also summarized.
Decision Making process is a very important step of any organisation's sustainability. It is a part of planning process. So if decision making is strong enough of any organisation, the organisation can survive long and effectively.
The document discusses decision making processes. It defines decision making as responding to problems by selecting solutions to benefit stakeholders. There are typically four steps: 1) identifying problems, 2) generating alternatives, 3) evaluating options, and 4) implementing and monitoring solutions. Decision making can involve programmed decisions using policies, procedures, or rules, or non-programmed decisions for novel situations with uncertainty or risk. Effective decision making requires overcoming barriers like complacency, avoidance, or panic, and following a deliberative process to decide on actions.
1) The document describes several models of decision making, including the rational/classical model, irrational models, and administrative, bounded rationality, social, behavioral, political, and intuitive models.
2) The rational/classical model assumes managers have complete information and make optimal decisions, while the irrational models recognize limitations like vague goals, limited searches, and satisficing versus maximizing solutions.
3) The administrative model assumes imperfect information leads to "good enough" decisions on available options, while the bounded rationality and behavioral models incorporate cognitive limitations and partial knowledge into the decision process.
TSL3143 Topic 2a Models of Curriculum DesignYee Bee Choo
The document discusses several models of curriculum design: Tyler's Objective Model (1949), Taba's Interactive Model (1962), Wheeler's Process Model (1967), and Walker's Naturalistic Model (1971). It provides details on the key aspects of each model, including their advantages and disadvantages. Tyler's model is linear and focuses on objectives. Taba's model is interactive and involves more teacher input. Wheeler's model is cyclical with feedback. Walker's model is descriptive and emphasizes stakeholder consensus. In conclusion, while the models provide useful frameworks, actual curriculum design in practice may vary and draw from multiple approaches.
A social studies teacher named Mr. X was facing problems with unmotivated and underperforming students. He decided to conduct action research to address this issue. He kept a journal for two weeks to observe student behavior. He then interviewed students to understand their perspectives. Based on his findings and a review of literature, he concluded that using project-based group work may help engage students more. He implemented this strategy and collected evidence on its impact on student performance. By continuing his journaling and making adjustments based on findings, he aimed to improve his teaching practice through this action research process.
Similar to CH 6 Decision Making_Quality & Acceptance 1.pdf (20)
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"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
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There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
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আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
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LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
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ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
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Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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2. Learning
Outcomes
• Characterize decision making as it
applies to practicing the art of
leadership in schools.
• List the several approaches
leaders might use to make
decisions in schools.
• Give examples of situations when
leaders might utilize an autocratic or
participatory decision-making style and
explain when one style is more
appropriate than the other.
• Illustrate how group decision-making techniques
might be used in school situations.
• List barriers and traps that inhibit the
effectiveness of decisions.
3. Let me hear your voice!
1) Why is decision making such an
important activity for school
administrators?
2) What types of decisions do school
administrators make?
3) Why is it virtually impossible for school
administrators to make optimum
decisions?
4) How can decision-making models help
school administrators improve their
decisions?
5) What are the benefits/problems of
group decision making?.
6) What are some decision-making
techniques that can be used to improve
decision making?
4. Decision making
Decision making pervades all
administrative functions:
• Planning, organizing, staffing,
directing, coordinating, and
controlling.
School administrators at all levels
make decisions.These decisions may
ultimately influence the school's
clients-the students.
All decisions, however, have some
influence, whether large or small, on
the performance of both faculty and
students.
Therefore, school administrators must
develop decision-making skills
because they make many decisions
that will affect the organization.
5. • acting with
integrity, valuing
diversity, and
bringing ethical
principles to the
decision-making
process
• effectively
communicating
with all
stakeholders to
ensure quality
and acceptance
of decisions.
• establishing and
implementing
policies that
ensure
educational
success for all
students
Decision making from three
Different perspectives:
MR. VATH VARY
6. What is ‘Decision making?’
MR. VATH VARY
……. is the systematic process of choosing from
several alternatives to achieve a desired result
(Kamlesh and Solow, 1994).
Choice
• Choosing
from
among
options.
Process
• Independen
tly made by
leader or
involved
with others
Outcome
• Achieving
the
desired
outcome.
Three elements of decision
making
7. An Analytic Model of Decision Making
In order to have
a right Decision
Making, a leader
follows
8. Approaches to Decision Making
MR. VATH VARY
• The leader identifies the problem and
its cause(s) then follows the series of
steps or develop solutions.
• The theories of choice and they
describe how decisions are made
and what people will actually do in
the decision-making process.
The Normative
(rational) Theory
The Descriptive
(non-
rational)Theory
• The Classical Model,
• Administrative Model,
• Incremental model
• Mixed Scanning Model
• Garbage Can Model,
• Political Model
10. (1)The Classical Model:
MR. VATH VARY
• Is completely rational and has its prime objective
maximizing the achievement of the goals of the
organization by finding the best solution among all
possible alternatives (as in figure 6.1)
• The process …
presupposes that all alternatives are identifiable,
consists of a series of sequential steps that begin with
problem identification and end with the achievement of
the desired outcome.
Optimizing: Make the Best
Decision
• Most scholars, in fact, consider the classical model
an unrealistic ideal. Decision makers virtually never
have access to all the relevant information.
Moreover, generating all the possible alternatives
and their consequences is impossible.
Problem
11. (2) The Administrative Model
MR. VATH VARY
• A systematic process that can be used to enhance the
identification of the appropriate alternative when
competing alternatives exist.
The basic approach is satisficing—that is, finding a
satisfactory decision/solution rather than the best one.
• The leader uses a rational,
sequential process to find the most
satisfactory solution possible.The
process consists of distinct phases:
a) recognition and definition of
the problem;
b) an analysis of the difficulties;
c) establishment of the criteria
for success;
d) development of an action
plan; and
e) an appraisal of the plan.
Because leaders do
not always have the data
necessary to find the one best
alternative for addressing
complex issues, they may settle
for bounded rationality (the
concept suggests that the ability of
decision makers to be rational is
limited by numerous constraints, such
as complexity, time, money, and other
resources, and their cognitive
capacity,values, skills, habits, and
unconscious reflexes.)
12. (2) The Administrative Model
MR. VATH VARY
• Decisions can be reached using a means–
end analysis; the leader selects a means
to reach a desired end.
The principal of a high school is interested in
purchasing new football uniforms for the school’s
team and has identified five companies to contact
regarding the purchase.
After completing the call to the third
company, he stopped calling and made a
purchase.
Consequently, he made a decision with
limited information because he did not
make the fourth and fifth calls.
Example
13. 3. The Incremental Model:
A Strategy of Successive Limited Comparisons
MR. VATH VARY
Charles Lindblom describes the way most decisions
are made as the science of muddling through:
• A small and limited set of options are considered.
• Options are only marginally different from existing situation.
• Options are considered by comparing actual consequences.
• Try the option and then observe consequences.
• If consequences are fine, then a little more.
• If consequences are negative, then back off and try
something different.
• Focus is on outcomes and trial and error.
• allows the school leader to make changes in small
increments in order to avoid unanticipated negative
consequences.
14. 3. The Incremental Model
MR. VATH VARY
Consider a superintendent who is interested in
implementing a new computer program for all
schools in the district at a cost of $2 million dollars.
However, he is not quite sure how teachers,
parents, and other stakeholders will receive
this new program or whether it will enhance
student achievement.
Therefore, he installs the computers in two
schools and evaluates their use; then, after
a period of time, installations are made in
five additional schools, and their use in
those schools is evaluated.
The decision regarding installation in
the remaining schools is based on the
evaluative information from the first
two installations.
Example
15. 4. The Mixed Scanning Model: An Adaptive Strategy
MR. VATH VARY
… is guided by two questions:
What is the organization’s mission?
What incremental decisions will move the organization
toward its mission/direction?
is a synthesis of
the
administrative
and incremental
models
• Leaders can make decisions and
stay within the realm of the
organization’s mission and policies
by responding to these questions.
Problems can be surveyed,
difficulties analyzed,
and a tentative action plan
initiated.
• If the plan fails, something new can
be attempted
16. 4. The Mixed Scanning Model
MR. VATH VARY
• Instead of taking a close look at all student
achievement test scores or only at the scores
of students who are not reaching the
established benchmark,
• the leader first conducts a general review of
student test scores (broad scanning) and
then makes a determination of the areas on
which to focus (narrow scanning).
Broad scanning reveals that there is a
problem with student achievement.
Narrow scanning allows the leader to focus
on the area of the problem.
• Using this process, time and resources can
be saved.
Example
18. • If the decision, the problem, and
the participant just happen to
fit, the problem is solved.
• If the solution does not fit, then
the problem remains unsolved.
MR. VATH VARY
• March (1982)
reasons that the
Garbage Can
Model allows
individuals to act
without fully
thinking through
an issue.
• Garbage Can Model is used, rather than
beginning with a problem and ending
with a solution, decision outcomes are the
product of independent streams of events.
• Over time, as various problems occur and
possible solutions to these problems are
developed, they are deposited into what is
figuratively referred to as a garbage can.
• The garbage can contains a
number of possible solutions
that have been considered or
used previously.
• When school leaders
encounter a problem, they can
select an alternative from the
garbage can.
The Garbage Can Model
19. The Garbage Can Model
MR. VATH VARY
• Principal Green, having observed student decorum in the cafeteria,
was very displeased with his observation.
• To improve student decorum, he implemented an alternative that
had worked effectively in a similar situation in the past. However,
student decorum in the cafeteria did not improve, and the
alternative was not retained.
Example
Three days later, he tried a second alternative that had
worked in a similar situation in the past.When the
faculty expressed concern with this alternative, it was
not retained.
• Then, Principal Green implemented a third
alternative. His third alternative, one that had been
used previously, improved student decorum in the
cafeteria and also met with the approval of the
faculty. Because of its effectiveness and
acceptance, the third alternative was retained for
the remainder of the year.
20. The Political Model
MR. VATH VARY
• The Political Model becomes the decision-making tool when
organizational goals are replaced by personal influence and
power is the overriding force
• Most
organizations
have defined
goals that
they are
striving to
achieve.
• The power and influence of individuals and/or
groups suppress the organizational goals.
personal perspectives and preferences
influence decision making in the
organization, resulting in manipulation.
• Individuals and/or groups maneuver to
influence organizational outcomes so that the
objectives that they favor might be achieved,
rather than the objectives of others in the
organization
• Conflict, bargaining, and game playing are
intensive and pervasive, and satisficing
organizational decision making gives way to
influence, power, and persistence.
21. Autocratic and Participatory Decision Making
MR. VATH VARY
• Consider for a moment that you
are the principal of an
elementary school, and a
decision has to be made
regarding the use of one of
three basal texts for teaching
first-grade reading.
Would you select the series
to be used (autocratic),
or would you involve other
individuals (participatory)
in the selection process?
If you elected to involve
other individuals in the
selection process, who
would you involve and why?
The leader must also
determine whether to make
the decision independently
or to invite assistance.
23. • The model addresses how the
behavior of the leader affects
decision quality and acceptance.
• They also suggest when leaders
should involve followers in the
decision-making process and to
what extent.
MR. VATH VARY
The Vroom–Yetton Model
• Vroom and Yetton
(1973) proposed a
Normative Model that
distinguishes between
individual and group
decision making.
a) The more influence that followers
have, the more they will be
motivated to implement a
decision; and
b) When decision acceptance is not
already high, follower
participation will increase
decision acceptance
The Vroom and Yetton
Model addresses two
basic assumptions:
24. MR. VATH VARY
The Vroom–Yetton Model
Totally
Autocratic
Using the information available, leaders make decisions without
assistance from anyone. Leaders are totally autocratic in their behavior
Autocratic
with
Assistance
Leaders receive information from followers but make the decision
without follower involvement. Using this procedure, leaders are
somewhat autocratic in their behavior as they receive assistance from
followers.
Consultativ
e with
Individuals
Leaders interact with followers individually, share information about
the problem, solicit ideas and listen to the opinions of followers, and
then make the decision themselves. Leaders actively consult with
followers
Consultativ
e with
Group
Leaders interact with followers as a group, share information about the
problem, solicit ideas and listen to the opinions of the group, and then
make the decision themselves.
Group
Decision
Leaders interact with followers as a group, share information about the
problem, solicit ideas and listen to the opinions of the group, and then
seek to reach consensus on the decision.
School leaders are offered five decision-making procedures.
Two procedures are autocratic in nature;
two are consultative,
and in one of the procedures, leaders and followers make decisions jointly
25. MR. VATH VARY
TheVroom–Jago Model
• Vroom and Jago (1988) revised the Vroom–Yetton Model,
adding the dimensions of time and follower development.
a) If a decision needs to be made
quickly, then selecting a
participatory style may be
counterproductive.
b) If followers have the skills and
attributes necessary for
participating in the decision-
making process, then, under
certain conditions, they should be
invited, particularly if an
immediate decision is not
necessary. Followers’ participation
could enhance decision quality
and acceptance.
• The revised
model adds
these criteria as
critical factors
to be
considered in
determining the
optimal
decision-
making
procedures:
26. MR. VATH VARY
a)designing a system in which
followers can effectively function;
b)the fear by leaders that if followers
are allowed to participate too
frequently, they will abuse the
privilege
The two major concerns regarding the
use of a participatory approach are:
TheVroom–Jago Model
27. • Decision
quality
• Examples
Individuals who are assigned to groups do not
have the expertise to make a contribution.
Individuals who have the required
expertise are not invited to participate as a
member of the group
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Decision Quality and Acceptance
• takes into account the objective aspects of decisions
that affect the performance of the group.
These objective aspects are considered
apart from any effects mediated by decision
acceptance.
• also refers to the expertise of members of the
group—the extent to which group members are able
to contribute to the selection of a quality alternative
Group performance is jointly affected by the variables
of quality and acceptance.
29. • Decision
quality
• Examples
Decisions made by leaders are accepted
by followers simply because the decisions
are beneficial to them or because they
approve of the approach used by leaders
in reaching the decision.
Followers refuse to accept a decision
because it was made in an autocratic
manner.
MR. VATH VARY
Decision Quality and Acceptance
• refers to the degree to which
followers are committed to
implementing a decision in an
effective manner
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To further address these concerns, A two-dimensional approach
that is widely accepted for use by leaders in determining whether
followers are to be involved in the decision-making process.
• Leaders determine whether
followers have the expertise
needed to contribute toward
finding an appropriate solution to
a problem.
Expertise of
Participants
Participants’
Zone of
Concern
• Leaders determine whether the
problem lies within the zone of
concern of followers, which affect
the decision to implement the
decision.
Decision Quality and Acceptance
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Participants’ Zone of Concern
Examples
• When decisions are outside of the zone of
concern or interest of followers, they are not
likely to be highly motivated to participate in
the decision-making process.Thus, including
them is not likely to enhance the quality or
acceptance of the decision.
• If a decision is within their zone of concern
and followers are excluded from participating
in the process, they are likely to feel
unappreciated and become dissatisfied with
school leaders.
• A decision is within the zone of concern
or interest of followers when they are
affected by the decision and/or are
expected to be involved in the
implementation process.
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• is most appropriate for addressing complex
problems when two completely different and
contrary approaches are identified.
The leader can employ the technique with the
direct involvement of the opposing groups or
elect to use the technique independently of the
opposing groups.
The Dialectical Inquiry Technique
• Accordingly, the dialectic method calls for
managers to foster a structured dialogue or
debate of opposing viewpoints prior to making a
decision.
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Barge (1994) characterizes the technique in the following manner:
1) All available information regarding a specific problem or event is collected by
the leader and presented to the two subgroups.The makeup of each group is
as homogenous as possible, but the groups are as different from each other as
possible.
2) The groups meet separately, analyze the information, and develop a list of
assumptions in order of importance to the group.The assumptions are written
down and presented to the opposing group.The groups then meet to debate
the merits of their theses and/or proposals. After the debate, each group
presents a revised proposal to the leader.The proposal should be in writing
and include all relevant information, assumptions, and key facts.
3) The leader reviews the information provided by the groups in search of
arguments and positions that are counter to or that negate the theses.The
leader also looks for recommendations that are counter to those developed in
Step 2 and conditions under which the original analysis would be in error or
open to question.The antithesis of the original analysis is thus identified.
4) The leader compares the two lists constructed during Steps 2 and 3 and
engages in a systematic critique of the competing assumptions.The validity of
both sets of assumptions is examined. Ultimately, a list of assumptions that is
consistent with both analyses is identified. A synthesis of the two competing
positions is developed.
5) On the basis of the remaining assumptions, the leader can develop a set of
recommendations.
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The Nominal Group Technique
• Silent generation of ideas;
• Round-robin recording
ideas;
• Discussion of ideas;
• Preliminary vote on item
importance;
• Additional discussion
• Final vote
• Individuals are brought together to develop a solution to a
problem.The leader generates ideas by asking group
members to write their ideas on slips of paper without
engaging in discussion.
It is concerned with both the generation of and
evaluation of the ideas
Six steps are
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The Delphi Technique
• It is a process that generates ideas and allows individuals to
react to program proposals or raise questions concerning a
project.
participants do not engage in facet-to-face
discussions;
the input is solicited from a large number of experts,
teachers, administrators or clients who are removed
from the organization by distance or scheduling
problems.
Individuals are able to think through
complex issues and submit high-quality
ideas without being influenced by
individuals in positions of status.
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The Delphi Technique
The
technique
involves
the
following
five steps:
1. The leader defines the problem, decision,
or question to which individuals and/or
groups are to react.
2. The leader identifies those individuals
and/or groups whose opinions, judgment,
or expert knowledge would be valuable
to obtain in the process of making a
decision.
3. The leader asks for the responses of
identified individuals and/or groups using
a written format, often a questionnaire.
4. The results are summarized and
redistributed to the individuals and/or
groups, and they are asked to review the
results and indicate any changes to their
initial responses.
5. Step 4 is repeated until there is a
reasonable consensus on the problem or
the decision
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• When ideas are suggested, they are written on a
whiteboard or flip chart.
• The rules of effective brainstorming do not permit any
positive or negative evaluative comments, scowls,
• groans, sighs, or gestures.
• All ideas are accepted, and value judgments are deferred.
• After all ideas have been listed, the members of the group
are encouraged to combine or improve on the ideas
suggested.
is a technique used to encourage group members to
contribute toward finding solutions to problems by
spontaneously suggesting any and all ideas that come
to mind
Brainstorming
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The Fishbone Diagram (Cause and Effect)
The steps in the process are as
follows:
1. Secure a flip chart or whiteboard.
2. Use the previously noted brainstorming
technique to identify the possible causes
of the problem.
3. Write the major categories on the right
side of the paper or whiteboard (i.e.,
Teaching Strategies, Materials,Teaching
Skills, and Time on Task).
4. List the ideas that the team brainstormed
under the appropriate category.
5. Then, look for the causes that appear
most frequently.
6. Work with the team to reach consensus
on the basic causes of the problem.
7. Search the data to determining the
frequency of the different causes.
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The Pareto Chart
1. The school leader calls a faculty meeting and
asks the faculty to brainstorm challenging
school program areas.
2. After giving the charge, he or she facilitates
the identification of a unit of measurement
3. A time frame is established for the period
during which the data are collected.
4. Data are collected for each of the
brainstormed areas.
5. The faculty compares the frequencies for
placement in categories.
6. The categories are listed from left to right in a
bar graph format.
7. The highest point is determined, which
indicates the preference of the faculty.
• … is a vertical bar graph that is used to determine
the rank order of issues, problems, and/or activities.
The
following
steps
outline the
developme
ntal
process:
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Barriers and Traps That Inhibit the Effectiveness
of Decisions
Groupthink
• can become a barrier because sometimes groups
become so cohesive that members resist challenging
ideas in order to maintain the integrity of the group.
Overuse of Groups:
• The leader must also safeguard against involving too
many people in the decision-making process.
• Some leaders have so many committees in operation
that they spend a major portion of their time in
committee meetings.
Fair process
is another issue to which leaders should attend as
decisions are being made.
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Barriers and Traps That Inhibit the Effectiveness
of Decisions
1. Engagement. Individuals are involved in making
decisions that affect them.The leader asks for their input
and allows them to refute or promote the merits of one
another’s ideas and assumptions.
2. Explanation. Everyone who is involved and affected
should understand why that particular decision was
made.
3. Expectation Clarity. Once a decision is made, leaders
clearly state the new operational procedures.
Kim and Mauborgne (1997, p. 69) propose
three principles of fair process that are
worthy of consideration by the school leader:
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Avoiding Hidden Traps
a) Status Quo. We all carry biases, and those biases influence the choices that
we make.The source of the status quo trap lies deep within our psyches, in
our desire to protect our ego from damage.
b) Sunk Cost. We make choices that justify past choices, even when the past
choices no longer seem to be valid.
c) Confirming Evidence. We seek out information that supports our existing
instincts or points of view while avoiding information that contradicts it.
d) Framing. We can use different frames of reference to assess a problem.The
same problem can elicit very different responses when different frames of
reference are used. A poorly framed problem can undermine even the best-
considered decision.
e) Estimating and Forecasting. We often fail to get clear feedback regarding
the accuracy of our estimates and forecasts.
f) Prudence. When we are faced with high-stakes decisions, we tend to adjust
our estimates to be on the safe side.
g) Recallability. We frequently base our predictions about future events on
our memory of past events, and we can be overly influenced by dramatic
events that leave a strong impression on us.
h) Overconfidence. We tend to be overconfident about our accuracy with
regard to our estimates.This can lead to errors in judgment and, in turn, bad
decisions.
44. The demands on the educational system today are putting
pressure on educational leaders to be effective decision makers
and to communicate those decisions in a manner that will
improve teaching and learning and promote the success of all
students
Guarding against groupthink, using groups only when
appropriate,ensuring a system of fair practices, and
safeguarding against the hidden traps can assist greatly in
improving decision quality and acceptance in schools.
MR. VATH VARY
Leadership for Today’s Schools
45. MR. VATH VARY
Summary
(1) Identifying the problem;
(2) analyzing the problem;
(3) Identifying alternative solutions;
(4) assessing the alternatives;
(5) selecting an alternative;
(6) implementing the selected
alternative; and
(7) evaluating the process.
• All decisions made in schools have some effect on the
performance of both faculty and staff.
• Therefore, it is important for school leaders to recognize
the magnitude of the problem and to be as rational as
possible in selecting an alternative.
The basic
decision-
making model
includes the
following steps: