This document provides an overview of atomic structure and quantum mechanics concepts related to the atom. It discusses Rutherford scattering and the nuclear model of the atom, line spectra and the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom. It also covers de Broglie's explanation of Bohr's assumptions, the quantum mechanical picture including quantum numbers, and the Pauli exclusion principle and its relation to the periodic table. Key topics include atomic energy levels, wave-particle duality, allowed electron configurations, and how quantum mechanics improved on the limitations of older atomic models.
The document discusses key concepts from special relativity including:
- Mass-energy equivalence, represented by the equation ΔE=(Δm)c2, relates mass and energy.
- Time dilation describes how time passes more slowly for objects moving at high speeds relative to an observer.
- Length contraction describes how lengths are measured to be shorter in the direction of motion for objects moving at high speeds.
- Relativistic momentum takes into account that both mass and velocity are relative based on the observer's frame of reference.
Ch 31 Nuclear Physics and RadioactivityScott Thomas
This document provides an overview of key concepts in nuclear physics and radioactivity covered in Chapter 31, including:
1) Nuclear reactions such as conservation of mass number and charge in nuclear reactions. Mass-energy equivalence and how it relates to energy released in nuclear processes.
2) Properties of the nucleus including isotopes, mass number, and atomic number. The strong nuclear force that binds nucleons together.
3) Radioactive decay processes including alpha, beta, gamma decay and particle emissions. Applications of radioactivity such as smoke detectors and radiation therapy.
4) Additional topics covered are nuclear structure, binding energy, the mass defect, radioactive dating, and the neutrino. Learning objectives provide details on understanding these
Newton's universal law of gravitation states that every point mass in the universe attracts every other point mass with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The gravitational field strength is defined as the gravitational force per unit mass experienced by a small test mass in the field. Field lines illustrate the direction of acceleration due to gravity and indicate that the field strength is greater nearer the surface of spherical masses.
This document discusses the structure of atoms based on experimental evidence. It describes experiments scattering charged particles and emitting/absorbing radiation that provided information about atomic structure. This evidence was used to develop atomic models, though models are simplifications and may not explain all properties. Atoms are very small, stable due to balanced internal forces, and electrically neutral even though they contain electrons.
1. Special relativity describes the laws of physics in different inertial reference frames where the speed of light in a vacuum is constant. It includes time dilation and length contraction effects at relativistic speeds.
2. General relativity describes gravity as a consequence of the curvature of spacetime caused by the uneven distribution of mass/energy. It predicts phenomena like gravitational time dilation, gravitational lensing, and the bending of light by massive objects.
3. Both theories have been validated experimentally through observations of subatomic particles, GPS satellites, and images of distant galaxies. They form the basis of modern physics.
This chapter discusses the structure of the atomic nucleus. Key points include:
- Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus through gold foil experiments in 1911.
- The nucleus is very small but dense, containing protons and neutrons (nucleons).
- Some nuclei are radioactive and decay through alpha, beta, or gamma emission.
- The half-life is the time for half of a radioactive substance to decay.
- Nuclear fission and fusion can release binding energy and be used for energy.
The document discusses the Earth's magnetism. It explains that the Earth behaves like a giant bar magnet with a north and south magnetic pole. These magnetic poles are different from the geographic north and south poles and move about 10 km each year. The Earth's core is made of iron, a magnetic material, and its liquid outer core circulating around generates the planet's magnetic field through a process called the dynamo theory. The Earth's magnetic field protects the atmosphere from the sun's charged particles and is responsible for the northern and southern lights by trapping and directing solar particles toward the poles.
1) Newton proposed that all objects with mass attract each other with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
2) An object in free fall experiences a sensation of weightlessness because both it and the elevator/spacecraft it is in are accelerating downward at the same rate due to gravity, so there is no relative acceleration between them.
3) A satellite in orbit around a planet is weightless because the centripetal acceleration needed to maintain its orbit exactly counteracts the acceleration due to gravity, resulting in no net acceleration felt by objects in the spacecraft.
The document discusses key concepts from special relativity including:
- Mass-energy equivalence, represented by the equation ΔE=(Δm)c2, relates mass and energy.
- Time dilation describes how time passes more slowly for objects moving at high speeds relative to an observer.
- Length contraction describes how lengths are measured to be shorter in the direction of motion for objects moving at high speeds.
- Relativistic momentum takes into account that both mass and velocity are relative based on the observer's frame of reference.
Ch 31 Nuclear Physics and RadioactivityScott Thomas
This document provides an overview of key concepts in nuclear physics and radioactivity covered in Chapter 31, including:
1) Nuclear reactions such as conservation of mass number and charge in nuclear reactions. Mass-energy equivalence and how it relates to energy released in nuclear processes.
2) Properties of the nucleus including isotopes, mass number, and atomic number. The strong nuclear force that binds nucleons together.
3) Radioactive decay processes including alpha, beta, gamma decay and particle emissions. Applications of radioactivity such as smoke detectors and radiation therapy.
4) Additional topics covered are nuclear structure, binding energy, the mass defect, radioactive dating, and the neutrino. Learning objectives provide details on understanding these
Newton's universal law of gravitation states that every point mass in the universe attracts every other point mass with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The gravitational field strength is defined as the gravitational force per unit mass experienced by a small test mass in the field. Field lines illustrate the direction of acceleration due to gravity and indicate that the field strength is greater nearer the surface of spherical masses.
This document discusses the structure of atoms based on experimental evidence. It describes experiments scattering charged particles and emitting/absorbing radiation that provided information about atomic structure. This evidence was used to develop atomic models, though models are simplifications and may not explain all properties. Atoms are very small, stable due to balanced internal forces, and electrically neutral even though they contain electrons.
1. Special relativity describes the laws of physics in different inertial reference frames where the speed of light in a vacuum is constant. It includes time dilation and length contraction effects at relativistic speeds.
2. General relativity describes gravity as a consequence of the curvature of spacetime caused by the uneven distribution of mass/energy. It predicts phenomena like gravitational time dilation, gravitational lensing, and the bending of light by massive objects.
3. Both theories have been validated experimentally through observations of subatomic particles, GPS satellites, and images of distant galaxies. They form the basis of modern physics.
This chapter discusses the structure of the atomic nucleus. Key points include:
- Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus through gold foil experiments in 1911.
- The nucleus is very small but dense, containing protons and neutrons (nucleons).
- Some nuclei are radioactive and decay through alpha, beta, or gamma emission.
- The half-life is the time for half of a radioactive substance to decay.
- Nuclear fission and fusion can release binding energy and be used for energy.
The document discusses the Earth's magnetism. It explains that the Earth behaves like a giant bar magnet with a north and south magnetic pole. These magnetic poles are different from the geographic north and south poles and move about 10 km each year. The Earth's core is made of iron, a magnetic material, and its liquid outer core circulating around generates the planet's magnetic field through a process called the dynamo theory. The Earth's magnetic field protects the atmosphere from the sun's charged particles and is responsible for the northern and southern lights by trapping and directing solar particles toward the poles.
1) Newton proposed that all objects with mass attract each other with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
2) An object in free fall experiences a sensation of weightlessness because both it and the elevator/spacecraft it is in are accelerating downward at the same rate due to gravity, so there is no relative acceleration between them.
3) A satellite in orbit around a planet is weightless because the centripetal acceleration needed to maintain its orbit exactly counteracts the acceleration due to gravity, resulting in no net acceleration felt by objects in the spacecraft.
1. Atoms consist of a dense central nucleus orbited by much smaller electrons.
2. Geiger and Marsden's alpha particle scattering experiments showed that positive charge in atoms is concentrated in a small central nucleus, rather than spread uniformly.
3. Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Nuclear physics studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. The field is the basis for applications like nuclear power, nuclear bombs, nuclear medicine, and radiocarbon dating. Atoms consist of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by orbiting electrons. Radioactivity occurs when unstable atomic nuclei decay by emitting particles like alpha and beta particles or gamma rays. Nuclear fission and fusion can release energy as nuclei split or combine.
Here is a summary of the key points in 1⁄2 page:
The Bataan Nuclear Power Plant (BNPP) was built in the Philippines in the 1970s but has never been operational. There were several issues that prevented its operation:
1. Safety concerns - The plant was built during the 1970s before stricter safety standards were established after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979. International experts raised doubts about its ability to withstand earthquakes and other natural disasters common in the Philippines.
2. High costs of operation - Estimates showed the plant would incur huge operating costs, especially for maintenance and purchasing nuclear fuel. These costs were deemed too high for the Philippine government and electricity consumers.
3.
The Compton effect
Group Name : Red Devils
Member Name & ID
Nusrat Isalm Setu -182-47-736
Md.Nazmul Hasan -182-47-722
Mohammad Imran Bhuiyan -182-47-742
Shafiul Alam -182-47-763
Kazi Hasibul Hasan -182-47-795
*FIRST INTRODUCED The Compton effect was first demonstrated in 1923 by Arthur Holly Compton (for which he received a 1927 Nobel Prize in Physics) Compton's graduate student, Y.H. Woo, later verified the effect.
DEFINITION: • The Compton effect (also called Compton scattering) is the result of a high-energy photon colliding with a target, which releases loosely bound electrons from the outer shell of the atom or molecule .
• The scattered radiation experiences a wavelength shift that cannot be explained in terms of classical wave theory, thus lending support to Einstein's photon theory.
• Probably the most important implication of the effect is that it showed light could not be fully explained according to wave phenomena.
APPLICATIONS:• Compton scattering is of prime importance to radiobiology, as it happens to be the most probable interaction of high energy X rays with atomic nuclei in living beings and is applied in radiation therapy.
• In material physics, Compton scattering can be used to probe the wave function of the electrons in matter in the momentum representation.
• Compton scattering is an important effect in gamma spectroscopy which gives rise to the Compton edge, as it is possible for the gamma rays to scatter out of the detectors used. Compton suppression is used to detect stray scatter gamma rays to counteract this effect.
equation of Compton effect:
THE EXPERIMENT: A graphite target was bombarded with monochromatic x-rays and the wavelength of the scattered radiation was measured with a rotating crystal spectrometer. The intensity was determined by a movable ionization chamber that generated a current proportional to the x-ray intensity. Compton measured the dependence of scattered x-ray intensity on wavelength at three different scattering angles of 45o 90o ,and 135o
The Experimental intensity vs wavelength plots observed by Compton for the three scattering angles show two peaks , one at the wavelength λ of the incident X-rays and the other at a longer wavelength λ’
HOW COMPTON EFFECT WORKS
This document provides an introduction to nuclear physics. It discusses the history and development of the field, from the discovery of radioactivity and the electron in the early 20th century to the proposal of the liquid drop model and development of the semi-empirical mass formula to describe nuclear structure. Key events discussed include Rutherford's discovery of the nuclear model of the atom, the discovery of the neutron by Chadwick, and Yukawa's proposal of the meson to explain nuclear forces. The introduction concludes by outlining the chapters to follow on topics like nuclear decay, fusion, fission, and reactor physics.
The document discusses the history of the development of atomic structure models from Thomson's plum pudding model to Rutherford's nuclear model. Key events include J.J. Thomson's discovery of the electron, Millikan's oil drop experiment determining the charge of an electron, discovery of the proton through canal ray experiments, Rutherford's alpha particle scattering experiment revealing the dense nucleus at the center of the atom, and Rutherford proposing the nuclear model of the atom. The nuclear model represented a major breakthrough but did not fully explain electron stability.
This document discusses the phenomenon of refraction of light. It defines refraction as the bending of light when passing from one medium to another. It explains that light slows down when passing into a denser medium from a less dense one. The key concepts covered are the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, and Snell's law which relates the two angles and the refractive indices of the materials. Total internal reflection is described as light bending back into the denser medium if the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle. Examples of calculating angles and indices of refraction are provided.
This document is a project report submitted by Priyanka Verma and Smriti Singh for their Bachelor of Science degree in physics. It discusses elementary particles, including their characteristics, classification, conservation laws, and examples like electrons, positrons, protons, neutrons, pions, and kaons. The report includes certificates of completion from their college principal and physics professors.
Photoelectric Effect And Dual Nature Of Matter And Radiation Class 12Self-employed
This document discusses the photoelectric effect and the dual wave-particle nature of matter and light. It covers:
1) An overview of the photoelectric effect and how it demonstrated the particle nature of light via Einstein's photoelectric equation.
2) De Broglie's hypothesis that matter has wave-like properties described by the de Broglie wavelength.
3) Daviesson and Germer's experiment demonstrating the wave-like diffraction of electrons from a crystal lattice, verifying matter waves.
Introduction to the structure of atoms from the view of a chemist - what are neutrons protons and electrons and how are they organized ? How are electrons organized - in 3 quantum numbers. Experimental evidence from the Bohr model.
- Electric current is the flow of electric charge. It is studied in current electricity and owes its origin to Alessandro Volta's invention of the battery, which produced a steady flow of electric current.
- In conductors like metals, loosely bound electrons can move freely and produce electric current when a potential difference is applied across the conductor by a battery. These free electrons drift in the direction of the electric field.
- Current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge. It is measured in amperes, which is the amount of charge (in coulombs) passing through an area in one second. Current is a scalar quantity while current density is a vector quantity.
Bohr's Theory is based on an early model of atom where electrons travel round the nucleus in a discrete stable numbers of orbit determined by Quantum conditions. This is an extension of Rutherford Model of atom.
Short introduction to what radioactive decay is and how to balance nuclear decay equations. Suggested you use after the introduction to alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation describes the gravitational force between two masses. The force is directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion describe the motion of planets around the sun, including that their orbits are ellipses with the sun at one focus, they sweep out equal areas in equal times, and the squares of their orbital periods are proportional to the cubes of their distances from the sun. A satellite stays in orbit around a planet when its centripetal force due to its velocity balances the gravitational force exerted by the planet.
Rutherford performed an experiment in 1911 where he bombarded a thin gold foil with alpha particles. He observed that:
1) Most alpha particles passed through the foil without deflection.
2) A few particles were deflected by small angles.
3) Very few were deflected back at 180 degrees.
From these observations, Rutherford concluded that:
1) Atoms are mostly empty space.
2) A small, dense nucleus explains the few particles being deflected.
3) The nucleus is much smaller than the atom.
This document discusses how objects become charged by gaining or losing electrons, and defines positive and negative charges. It explains that like charges repel and opposite charges attract. Methods for charging objects include friction, touch, and induction. The key rules are that charge cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred, and that when two charged objects touch, their total charge is distributed equally between them. Examples are provided to demonstrate calculating the new charges and number of electrons transferred when two charged spheres touch.
1. Every magnet has two poles, north and south, and magnetic fields are described by field lines that run from the north to the south pole.
2. A current-carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a force perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field. Fleming's left hand rule can be used to determine the direction of this force.
3. Charged particles like electrons moving through a magnetic field experience a force perpendicular to their motion, causing them to travel in a circular path. The magnetic field provides the centripetal force.
This document is a presentation on quantum mechanics by Primary Information Services. It discusses key topics of quantum mechanics including that electrons exist as standing waves around the nucleus rather than orbiting planets. It also mentions important applications of quantum theory like lasers, transistors and medical imaging. The document outlines the four quantum numbers that describe atomic structure and states that particles can pop into and out of existence at the quantum level due to energy and matter being interchangeable. It defines the quantum realm as where quantum effects become important at very small scales.
Light and matter exhibit wave-particle duality, behaving as both particles and waves. When light passes through two slits, it creates an interference pattern like a wave. However, when using a sensitive film, tiny light particles are observed, suggesting particle behavior. Einstein acknowledged two necessary but logically unconnected theories of light. The double slit experiment results cannot be fully explained by treating light solely as particles or waves. While one theory was that photons interacted to cause interference, experiments making the light extremely dim found it was virtually impossible for two photons to be present at the same time. Thus light and matter demonstrate both wave and particle properties and cannot be described by only one model.
This document discusses electromagnetic radiation and the wave-particle duality of light. It explains that electromagnetic radiation travels as waves with characteristics of wavelength and frequency. The energy of individual photons is related to their frequency by Planck's constant. Electrons in atoms can only occupy certain allowed energy levels, absorbing or emitting photons of specific frequencies as they transition between levels. This explains atomic emission spectra and helped develop the theories of quantum mechanics.
This document provides examples of calculations involving concepts of wavelength, frequency, and photon energy from electromagnetic radiation. It includes examples of calculating frequency from given wavelength, energy of a photon from its wavelength, electronic transitions in the hydrogen atom, and matter waves. Sample problems and solutions are provided to demonstrate these concepts and calculations.
1. Atoms consist of a dense central nucleus orbited by much smaller electrons.
2. Geiger and Marsden's alpha particle scattering experiments showed that positive charge in atoms is concentrated in a small central nucleus, rather than spread uniformly.
3. Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Nuclear physics studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. The field is the basis for applications like nuclear power, nuclear bombs, nuclear medicine, and radiocarbon dating. Atoms consist of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by orbiting electrons. Radioactivity occurs when unstable atomic nuclei decay by emitting particles like alpha and beta particles or gamma rays. Nuclear fission and fusion can release energy as nuclei split or combine.
Here is a summary of the key points in 1⁄2 page:
The Bataan Nuclear Power Plant (BNPP) was built in the Philippines in the 1970s but has never been operational. There were several issues that prevented its operation:
1. Safety concerns - The plant was built during the 1970s before stricter safety standards were established after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979. International experts raised doubts about its ability to withstand earthquakes and other natural disasters common in the Philippines.
2. High costs of operation - Estimates showed the plant would incur huge operating costs, especially for maintenance and purchasing nuclear fuel. These costs were deemed too high for the Philippine government and electricity consumers.
3.
The Compton effect
Group Name : Red Devils
Member Name & ID
Nusrat Isalm Setu -182-47-736
Md.Nazmul Hasan -182-47-722
Mohammad Imran Bhuiyan -182-47-742
Shafiul Alam -182-47-763
Kazi Hasibul Hasan -182-47-795
*FIRST INTRODUCED The Compton effect was first demonstrated in 1923 by Arthur Holly Compton (for which he received a 1927 Nobel Prize in Physics) Compton's graduate student, Y.H. Woo, later verified the effect.
DEFINITION: • The Compton effect (also called Compton scattering) is the result of a high-energy photon colliding with a target, which releases loosely bound electrons from the outer shell of the atom or molecule .
• The scattered radiation experiences a wavelength shift that cannot be explained in terms of classical wave theory, thus lending support to Einstein's photon theory.
• Probably the most important implication of the effect is that it showed light could not be fully explained according to wave phenomena.
APPLICATIONS:• Compton scattering is of prime importance to radiobiology, as it happens to be the most probable interaction of high energy X rays with atomic nuclei in living beings and is applied in radiation therapy.
• In material physics, Compton scattering can be used to probe the wave function of the electrons in matter in the momentum representation.
• Compton scattering is an important effect in gamma spectroscopy which gives rise to the Compton edge, as it is possible for the gamma rays to scatter out of the detectors used. Compton suppression is used to detect stray scatter gamma rays to counteract this effect.
equation of Compton effect:
THE EXPERIMENT: A graphite target was bombarded with monochromatic x-rays and the wavelength of the scattered radiation was measured with a rotating crystal spectrometer. The intensity was determined by a movable ionization chamber that generated a current proportional to the x-ray intensity. Compton measured the dependence of scattered x-ray intensity on wavelength at three different scattering angles of 45o 90o ,and 135o
The Experimental intensity vs wavelength plots observed by Compton for the three scattering angles show two peaks , one at the wavelength λ of the incident X-rays and the other at a longer wavelength λ’
HOW COMPTON EFFECT WORKS
This document provides an introduction to nuclear physics. It discusses the history and development of the field, from the discovery of radioactivity and the electron in the early 20th century to the proposal of the liquid drop model and development of the semi-empirical mass formula to describe nuclear structure. Key events discussed include Rutherford's discovery of the nuclear model of the atom, the discovery of the neutron by Chadwick, and Yukawa's proposal of the meson to explain nuclear forces. The introduction concludes by outlining the chapters to follow on topics like nuclear decay, fusion, fission, and reactor physics.
The document discusses the history of the development of atomic structure models from Thomson's plum pudding model to Rutherford's nuclear model. Key events include J.J. Thomson's discovery of the electron, Millikan's oil drop experiment determining the charge of an electron, discovery of the proton through canal ray experiments, Rutherford's alpha particle scattering experiment revealing the dense nucleus at the center of the atom, and Rutherford proposing the nuclear model of the atom. The nuclear model represented a major breakthrough but did not fully explain electron stability.
This document discusses the phenomenon of refraction of light. It defines refraction as the bending of light when passing from one medium to another. It explains that light slows down when passing into a denser medium from a less dense one. The key concepts covered are the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, and Snell's law which relates the two angles and the refractive indices of the materials. Total internal reflection is described as light bending back into the denser medium if the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle. Examples of calculating angles and indices of refraction are provided.
This document is a project report submitted by Priyanka Verma and Smriti Singh for their Bachelor of Science degree in physics. It discusses elementary particles, including their characteristics, classification, conservation laws, and examples like electrons, positrons, protons, neutrons, pions, and kaons. The report includes certificates of completion from their college principal and physics professors.
Photoelectric Effect And Dual Nature Of Matter And Radiation Class 12Self-employed
This document discusses the photoelectric effect and the dual wave-particle nature of matter and light. It covers:
1) An overview of the photoelectric effect and how it demonstrated the particle nature of light via Einstein's photoelectric equation.
2) De Broglie's hypothesis that matter has wave-like properties described by the de Broglie wavelength.
3) Daviesson and Germer's experiment demonstrating the wave-like diffraction of electrons from a crystal lattice, verifying matter waves.
Introduction to the structure of atoms from the view of a chemist - what are neutrons protons and electrons and how are they organized ? How are electrons organized - in 3 quantum numbers. Experimental evidence from the Bohr model.
- Electric current is the flow of electric charge. It is studied in current electricity and owes its origin to Alessandro Volta's invention of the battery, which produced a steady flow of electric current.
- In conductors like metals, loosely bound electrons can move freely and produce electric current when a potential difference is applied across the conductor by a battery. These free electrons drift in the direction of the electric field.
- Current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge. It is measured in amperes, which is the amount of charge (in coulombs) passing through an area in one second. Current is a scalar quantity while current density is a vector quantity.
Bohr's Theory is based on an early model of atom where electrons travel round the nucleus in a discrete stable numbers of orbit determined by Quantum conditions. This is an extension of Rutherford Model of atom.
Short introduction to what radioactive decay is and how to balance nuclear decay equations. Suggested you use after the introduction to alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation describes the gravitational force between two masses. The force is directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion describe the motion of planets around the sun, including that their orbits are ellipses with the sun at one focus, they sweep out equal areas in equal times, and the squares of their orbital periods are proportional to the cubes of their distances from the sun. A satellite stays in orbit around a planet when its centripetal force due to its velocity balances the gravitational force exerted by the planet.
Rutherford performed an experiment in 1911 where he bombarded a thin gold foil with alpha particles. He observed that:
1) Most alpha particles passed through the foil without deflection.
2) A few particles were deflected by small angles.
3) Very few were deflected back at 180 degrees.
From these observations, Rutherford concluded that:
1) Atoms are mostly empty space.
2) A small, dense nucleus explains the few particles being deflected.
3) The nucleus is much smaller than the atom.
This document discusses how objects become charged by gaining or losing electrons, and defines positive and negative charges. It explains that like charges repel and opposite charges attract. Methods for charging objects include friction, touch, and induction. The key rules are that charge cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred, and that when two charged objects touch, their total charge is distributed equally between them. Examples are provided to demonstrate calculating the new charges and number of electrons transferred when two charged spheres touch.
1. Every magnet has two poles, north and south, and magnetic fields are described by field lines that run from the north to the south pole.
2. A current-carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a force perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field. Fleming's left hand rule can be used to determine the direction of this force.
3. Charged particles like electrons moving through a magnetic field experience a force perpendicular to their motion, causing them to travel in a circular path. The magnetic field provides the centripetal force.
This document is a presentation on quantum mechanics by Primary Information Services. It discusses key topics of quantum mechanics including that electrons exist as standing waves around the nucleus rather than orbiting planets. It also mentions important applications of quantum theory like lasers, transistors and medical imaging. The document outlines the four quantum numbers that describe atomic structure and states that particles can pop into and out of existence at the quantum level due to energy and matter being interchangeable. It defines the quantum realm as where quantum effects become important at very small scales.
Light and matter exhibit wave-particle duality, behaving as both particles and waves. When light passes through two slits, it creates an interference pattern like a wave. However, when using a sensitive film, tiny light particles are observed, suggesting particle behavior. Einstein acknowledged two necessary but logically unconnected theories of light. The double slit experiment results cannot be fully explained by treating light solely as particles or waves. While one theory was that photons interacted to cause interference, experiments making the light extremely dim found it was virtually impossible for two photons to be present at the same time. Thus light and matter demonstrate both wave and particle properties and cannot be described by only one model.
This document discusses electromagnetic radiation and the wave-particle duality of light. It explains that electromagnetic radiation travels as waves with characteristics of wavelength and frequency. The energy of individual photons is related to their frequency by Planck's constant. Electrons in atoms can only occupy certain allowed energy levels, absorbing or emitting photons of specific frequencies as they transition between levels. This explains atomic emission spectra and helped develop the theories of quantum mechanics.
This document provides examples of calculations involving concepts of wavelength, frequency, and photon energy from electromagnetic radiation. It includes examples of calculating frequency from given wavelength, energy of a photon from its wavelength, electronic transitions in the hydrogen atom, and matter waves. Sample problems and solutions are provided to demonstrate these concepts and calculations.
The document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts in quantum mechanics and atomic structure, including:
- The formula for the energy of a photon
- Definitions of wave function, probability density, electron density, orbitals, electron shells, subshells, degeneracy, Pauli exclusion principle, electron configuration, and Hund's rule
- Tables listing the allowed values of the principal, angular momentum, magnetic, and spin quantum numbers
- Examples of specifying orbitals using n, l, and ml values
- Examples of writing electron configurations in both long and short hand notation for various elements
This document contains a physics test with multiple choice questions (Part A), reasoning questions (Part B), short answer questions (Part C), and long answer questions (Part D). The test covers topics in mechanics including motion, force, acceleration, momentum, friction, and Newton's laws of motion. It contains questions to calculate values like component forces, object acceleration, object momentum, and time for an object to fall.
This physics study guide provides an overview of topics to review for an upcoming test, including motion, speed, velocity, acceleration, forces, and concepts from previous units. Students are instructed to review chapters 18-19 in their textbook, class notes, assignments, blogs, and homework. The guide includes 20 multiple choice and free response questions addressing these concepts to help students prepare.
This study guide provides some tips for studying for the final exam, but does not contain everything needed. Students should use their chapter review worksheets, notes, and PowerPoints posted online to fully prepare. Key terms, concepts, and formulas are listed for several physics topics, along with questions to review. Students are advised to study these topics, practice problems from worksheets, and familiarize themselves with the provided formula sheet for the exam.
1. The document provides a study guide for physics vocabulary review terms and concepts.
2. It contains fill-in-the-blank questions to test understanding of key physics terms like scientific method, dependent and independent variables, and significant digits.
3. The study guide also reviews SI units and how to determine the number of significant digits in measurements and calculations.
This document contains a monthly physics test for Class XII with multiple choice and long answer questions. The test covers topics in electrostatics including electric field, electric flux, electric potential, electric dipole moment, Gauss's law, and Coulomb's law. It has 16 total marks worth of questions testing comprehension of fundamental concepts and abilities to define, derive and apply equations for various electrostatic situations.
John Dalton developed the first modern atomic theory which stated that elements are made of extremely small indivisible particles called atoms. Atoms of a given element are identical but differ from atoms of other elements. Atoms combine in simple whole number ratios to form compounds.
Niels Bohr contributed the Bohr model of the atom which depicted electrons traveling in discrete orbits around the nucleus. He also developed the shell model which explained an element's chemical properties based on its outermost electrons. Bohr received the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physics for his investigations into atomic structure and radiation. He played an important role in the development of quantum mechanics and nuclear physics.
Physics - Test on Measurement,Motion in one dimension and laws of motion,GRAD...tanushseshadri
Hey guys
Physics - Test on Measurement,Motion in one dimension and laws of motion
This doc is a test fr garde 9 ICSE students
If u like the document please do like it and follow me
TOPICS COVERED
MEASUREMENT
MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION
LAWS OF MOTION
This document provides an overview of key concepts in work, energy, and power. It includes definitions of work, kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy, elastic potential energy, and power. Sample problems demonstrate how to apply the concepts of work, energy, and conservation of mechanical energy to calculate quantities like speed and potential energy. Multiple choice and short response questions assess understanding of these physics topics.
The document summarizes key concepts about the reflection of light by plane and spherical mirrors, including:
1) Plane mirrors form virtual, upright images that are the same size as the object and located the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
2) Spherical mirrors can form real or virtual images, depending on whether the mirror is convex or concave. Concave mirrors always form virtual images while convex mirrors form real images.
3) Ray diagrams can be used to locate the image position by tracing the path of light rays reflecting off the mirror according to the law of reflection.
Teach your kids how to program with Python and the Raspberry PiJuan Gomez
RaspberryPis are the new frontier in enabling kids (and curious adults) to get access to an affordable and easy-to-program platform to build cool things. Over a million of these nifty little devices have been sold in less than a year and part of their popularity has been due to how easy it is to start programming on them.
In this session you'll learn how to get started with the Raspberry PI, initial set-up, configuration and some tips and tricks. Then we'll have a brief introduction to basic Python and we'll write a few simple programs that run on the RaspberryPI. The last section of the session will be dedicated to PyGame, we'll learn about surfaces, events, inputs, sprites, etc and demonstrate how to build very simple games that are as much fun for kids to write, than to play!
The document discusses electrons in atoms and is divided into three sections. Section 5.1 covers light and quantized energy, explaining that light has both wave and particle properties and matter emits and absorbs energy in quanta. Section 5.2 discusses quantum theory and the atom, comparing Bohr's model to the quantum mechanical model which assumes electrons have wave properties. Section 5.3 is about electron configuration, explaining that the arrangement of electrons in an atom follows rules such as the aufbau principle and can be represented with orbital diagrams and electron configuration notation.
The document discusses electrons in atoms and their arrangement. It begins by explaining the wave-particle duality of light and electrons. It then discusses the historical atomic models of Rutherford, Bohr, and the quantum mechanical model. The quantum mechanical model treats electrons as waves and describes their location in terms of probability distributions within orbitals. The document concludes by explaining the rules that determine electron configuration, including the Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund's rule.
How the Bohr Model of the Atom Accounts for Limitations with Classical Mechan...Thomas Oulton
This small essay concisely outlines how Classical mechanics was deemed unacceptable when describing the motions of electrons within an atom through the observations made by hydrogen spectra, and how this lead to a revolution in atomic theory. Included is a brief overview of how Bohr arrived at his model through applying quantum mechanics.
Written for; First year Undergraduate study,
Materials Science and Engineering,
The University of Sheffield
Graded at 78%
This document discusses Rutherford's atomic model and Bohr's model of the atom. It provides details of Rutherford's alpha particle scattering experiment which showed that atoms have a small, dense nucleus. This led Rutherford to propose a planetary model of the atom with electrons orbiting the nucleus. The document then discusses limitations of Rutherford's model and how Bohr proposed quantized electron orbits to explain atomic stability. It provides Bohr's key postulates and formulas for the hydrogen atom spectrum and energy levels.
The document summarizes key concepts about atomic structure and models. It discusses experiments that led to discoveries of the electron and properties like charge/mass ratio. Models proposed include Thomson's plum pudding model and Rutherford's nuclear model. Planck's quantum theory explained blackbody radiation and the photoelectric effect. Max Planck suggested that energy is quantized and comes in discrete packets called quanta.
This document defines various terms associated with elements and their subatomic particles. It then summarizes Rutherford's gold foil experiment and conclusions that led to the nuclear model of the atom. The document continues by describing the key subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons), electromagnetic spectrum, photoelectric effect, atomic spectra, Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom, de Broglie wavelength, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, Schrodinger wave equation, shapes of orbitals, filling of orbitals according to Aufbau principle and Hund's rule.
This document contains multiple physics problems and questions related to topics like photoelectric effect, photon energy, atomic spectra, Compton scattering, and properties of the sun. Some key details include:
- Problem 38.1 asks about the work function, Planck's constant, and characteristics of a graph showing stopping potential vs frequency of incident light.
- Problem 38.2 calculates photon properties like frequency, energy, and speed imparted to a bacterium for a photon that triggers the eye at a wavelength of 505nm.
- Problem 38.73 estimates the increase in wavelength from Compton scattering as photons travel from the sun's core to surface, calculating the scattering angle and distance light can travel within the sun before
Electrons are important because their wavelike properties help explain atomic structure and spectra. Electrons can only gain or lose energy in specific quantized amounts called quanta. The quantum mechanical model treats electrons as waves and uses probability maps instead of fixed orbits, with electrons located in regions called atomic orbitals based on their quantum numbers.
Compare and contrast the ideas that led to the Bohr model of the ato.pdfarjuncollection
Compare and contrast the ideas that led to the Bohr model of the atom to the ideas that led to the
quantum mecchanical theory that gave rise to the hydrogen atom wave functions.
Solution
The difficulty with the planetary picture provided before the Bohr model is that it is inconsistent
with a well established fact of classical electrodynamics which says that an accelerated electric
charge must continually radiate energy. If electrons actually followed such a trajectory, all atoms
would act as source of radiation. The radiated energy would come from the kinetic energy of the
orbiting electron; as this energy gets radiated away, As a result the electron would quickly fall
into the nucleus. According to classical physics, no atom based on this model could exist for
more than a brief fraction of a second.
In contrary The Bohr model is a mixture of classical physics and quantum physics. The main
postulated of Bohr\'s orbit are as follows:
1.) The electron in the atom moves in a circular orbit centred on its nucleus. Its motion in the
orbit is governed by the Coulomb electric force between the negatively charged electron and the
positively charged proton.The radius of orbit can be given as [r = nh/(2*pi*m*v), where n is
principal quantum number.Emission spectrum of hydrogen is nicely explained by Bohr model.
However, one serious difficulty with the Bohr model was that it was unable to explain the
spectrum of any atom more complicated than hydrogen.
2.) An electron in a Bohr orbit does not continuously radiate electromagnetic radiation. Its
energy is therefore constant. The orbit is referred to as a stationary orbit.
3.) Electromagnetic radiation isonlyemitted when the electron changes from one orbit to another
of a lower total energy. (The electron is said to undergo atransition.) In such a case, the energy
lost, E, is emitted asonequantum of radiation of frequencyfas given by thePlanck–Einstein
formula:
E = hf
Although the Bohr model hypothesis for the quantization of angular momentum can be justified
in terms of electron wave ideas, the Bohr model remains profoundly unsatisfactory as a wave
model for the atom and also was not able to answer that why it doesn\'t fall into the nucleus. The
main failures of Bohr\'s model are:
- a mixture of classical and quantum ideas (electrons move classically on orbits, but their
possible energy states are quantified)
- postulates that on the allowed orbits electrons do not radiate
(conflict with Maxwell’s theory)
- could not account for the maximal electron numbers on one shell
- could not explain splitting of the spectral lines in magnetic fields
- it is a non-relativistic theory although the speed of the electrons is close to c
In the Quantum Mechanical Model, the electron is treated mathematically as a wave. The
electron has properties of both particles and waves. The advantage of Quantum Mechanical
model over Bohr model is that it was successful to give explaination of the fact that electron does
not fall in.
1) The document discusses the electronic structure of atoms, beginning with a description of the electromagnetic spectrum and wave-particle duality of light. 2) It then covers early atomic models including Planck's quantum theory, Bohr's model of the atom, and de Broglie's proposal that electrons exhibit wave-like properties. 3) The document concludes by mentioning the development of quantum mechanics and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.
1) The document discusses the topic-structure of an atom and summarizes the key discoveries that led to modern atomic theory, including the discovery of the electron, proton, neutron, and development of atomic models.
2) It describes Michael Faraday's experiments in the 1830s that provided early insights into atomic structure and the discovery of the electron in the 1850s from cathode ray experiments.
3) The document also summarizes Bohr's 1913 model of the hydrogen atom which explained its spectral lines by postulating stable electron orbits, and the development of quantum mechanics and Schrodinger's equation to more fully describe atomic structure.
The document discusses key concepts in atomic and nuclear physics including:
1) Photons and their properties such as energy, momentum, and relation to wavelength and frequency. The photoelectric effect and how it provided evidence for photons.
2) Compton scattering and how it showed that light has particle-like properties. The nature and production of x-rays.
3) Wave-particle duality and concepts like de Broglie wavelength which showed matter has wave-like properties. Key experiments that demonstrated these dual properties.
This document is an outline for a chapter on electrons in atoms. It is divided into three main sections:
Section 5.1 discusses light and quantized energy, including the wave and particle properties of light and photons.
Section 5.2 covers the quantum theory of the atom, comparing the Bohr and quantum mechanical models. It introduces atomic orbitals and quantum numbers.
Section 3 discusses electron configuration, including the rules for determining configuration, valence electrons, and representing configurations with diagrams and symbols.
1) Rutherford conducted an experiment where he bombarded a thin gold foil with alpha particles. He observed that most alpha particles passed through without deflection, but some were deflected at large angles, indicating the positive charge in an atom is concentrated in a small nucleus.
2) Bohr modified Rutherford's model by proposing electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed, quantized energy levels. Electrons can jump between these levels, emitting or absorbing photons of specific frequencies.
3) Frank and Hertz conducted an experiment where they observed sharp drops in current through a mercury vapor cathode at multiples of 4.9V. This provided direct evidence that electrons in atoms can only occupy discrete energy levels, as predicted by Bohr
This document discusses the quantum mechanical model of the atom. It describes how the model considers the atom as a positively charged nucleus surrounded by electron waves that extend in space around the nucleus. Some key points of the model are that it considers the wave-like properties of electrons, describes the probabilistic nature of finding electrons in different regions, and is based on developments like de Broglie's equation and Schrodinger's wave equation. The model emphasizes that the path of an electron can never be known accurately and describes electron states in terms of probability distributions in different atomic orbitals.
- The document discusses the structure of the atom, beginning with John Dalton's model of indivisible atoms and progressing to modern atomic structure based on experiments like Rutherford's gold foil experiment.
- It describes subatomic particles like electrons, protons, and neutrons that make up atoms, and models of atomic structure proposed by scientists like Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, and Moseley.
- Key aspects of atomic structure covered include the Bohr model of electron orbits, calculation of orbital radii and velocities, and the relationship between potential energy, kinetic energy and total energy of electrons in atoms.
The document summarizes atomic emission spectra and the origin of spectral lines. It discusses how atoms emit electromagnetic radiation when excited by an energy source. The emitted light is separated into spectral lines using a prism. Gases at low pressure emit discrete spectral lines, forming an atomic emission spectrum unique to each element. The Bohr model explained hydrogen's spectrum by proposing electron orbits of discrete energy levels. Later quantum theory described electron distributions as wave functions and orbitals rather than physical orbits. Spectral lines correspond to electron transitions between energy levels.
The document discusses various topics related to electromagnetic radiation and quantum mechanics including:
1. Neon signs glow different colors due to gases emitting light at characteristic wavelengths when an electric current passes through.
2. The electromagnetic spectrum consists of radiation with a broad range of wavelengths, including visible light, ultraviolet light, infrared light, microwaves and more.
3. Albert Einstein's photon theory explained the photoelectric effect where photons with sufficient energy can eject electrons from metals.
This document summarizes key concepts from atomic theory:
1. Early atomic theories proposed by Democritus, Dalton, Thomson, and Rutherford attempted to explain the nature of atoms and subatomic particles. Rutherford's gold foil experiment led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus.
2. Niels Bohr combined Rutherford's nuclear model with Planck's quantum theory to explain atomic spectra. Electrons can only orbit at certain distances corresponding to specific energy levels.
3. Modern atomic theory incorporates quantum mechanics. Electrons do not have definite positions, but are described by orbital probabilities. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle limits the precision of measuring certain paired properties.
This document contains a physics exam with multiple choice and free response questions covering topics like the photoelectric effect, quantization of energy, nuclear physics, wave-particle duality, and more. The exam has sections on multiple choice questions with 16 total questions, explanations of concepts to short responses, and 9 physics problems to solve.
This document provides an overview of key physics concepts and mathematical tools. It covers units of measurement in the SI system, vector notation and operations like addition/subtraction, trigonometry, and dimensional analysis. Example problems demonstrate various concepts like finding components of vectors and adding multiple vectors. The document concludes with additional mathematical rules and functions important for physics problems.
This document contains a list of 40 physics review questions covering topics like momentum, power, energy, forces, motion, waves, light, electricity, and circuits. The questions cover definitions, equations, calculations, and comparisons of key concepts to help prepare for a physics final exam. Some example questions are about Newton's laws of motion, the difference between elastic and inelastic collisions, drawing ray diagrams for lenses, and Ohm's law.
Ch 32 Radiation, Nuclear Energy, and ParticlesScott Thomas
This document provides an overview of key concepts in nuclear physics, nuclear energy, and elementary particles covered in an Advanced Placement (AP) physics course. It discusses nuclear reactions, mass-energy equivalence, nuclear fission, nuclear reactors, nuclear fusion, and elementary particles. The document also includes sample multiple choice questions assessing understanding of these topics.
Ch 27 interference & wave nature of light onlineScott Thomas
The document discusses key concepts related to the wave nature of light and interference and diffraction phenomena:
1) Interference occurs when two light waves pass through a point and their electric fields combine according to the principle of superposition, resulting in constructive or destructive interference depending on whether the waves are in or out of phase.
2) Young's double-slit experiment demonstrates interference, producing bright and dark fringes on a screen from the constructive and destructive interference of light passing through two slits.
3) Thin-film interference results from the multiple reflections within a thin film, leading to either constructive or destructive interference depending on the path length differences and refractive indices of the materials.
Ch 26 Light Refraction: Lenses and Optical InstrumentsScott Thomas
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to the refraction of light through lenses and optical instruments. It discusses the index of refraction and how it relates to the speed of light in different media. Snell's law of refraction is introduced to relate the angles of incident and refracted rays. Total internal reflection and its applications are described. Image formation using lenses is explained using ray tracing and the thin lens equation. Dispersion of light through prisms and its role in rainbow formation is also summarized.
This document provides an overview of electromagnetic waves and key concepts in physics including:
- James Clerk Maxwell showed that electric and magnetic fields can form propagating electromagnetic waves.
- Electromagnetic waves include visible light, ultraviolet rays, infrared rays, radio waves, x-rays and gamma rays.
- The speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is a constant at approximately 3×10^8 m/s.
- Electromagnetic waves transport energy and the total energy density carried by a wave depends on the electric and magnetic field amplitudes.
Ch 17 Linear Superposition and InterferenceScott Thomas
This document discusses principles of wave interference including:
1. The principle of linear superposition states that when waves overlap, the resulting displacement is the sum of the individual displacements.
2. Constructive and destructive interference occur when waves are in phase or out of phase, respectively, increasing or decreasing the amplitude.
3. Diffraction is the bending of waves around barriers, causing diffraction patterns from interference of diffracted waves.
4. Beats occur when two nearly matched frequencies are superimposed, producing a characteristic loud-soft pattern from their interference.
This document provides an overview of Newtonian mechanics and one-dimensional kinematics. It defines key terms like position, velocity, acceleration, displacement, distance, speed, average speed, average velocity, instantaneous velocity, constant acceleration, and the kinematic equations. It includes examples of how to use the kinematic equations to solve problems involving constant acceleration. There are also sample problems assessing understanding of concepts like displacement vs distance, velocity, acceleration, and interpreting graphs of kinematic variables.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in waves and sound from Chapter 16. It covers the nature of waves including transverse and longitudinal waves. It discusses topics like speed of waves on a string, mathematical description of waves, nature of sound, and speed of sound. The document is structured with learning objectives, tables of contents, definitions of terms, examples, and conceptual questions.
This document provides an overview of chapter 22 on electromagnetic induction. It discusses key concepts such as magnetic flux, Faraday's law of induction, Lenz's law, and applications including electric generators. The chapter covers how changing magnetic fields can induce emfs and currents in conductors based on Faraday's law. Lenz's law describes how the direction of induced currents will oppose the change that created them. Applications discussed include the reproduction of sound and electric generators.
1. Magnetic fields exert forces on moving charged particles. The magnitude and direction of this force depends on the charge, velocity, and magnetic field.
2. Charged particles moving through a uniform magnetic field will travel in a circular path perpendicular to the magnetic field. The radius of the circular path depends on the particle's properties and magnetic field strength.
3. Current-carrying wires placed in a magnetic field experience forces. These forces can cause straight wires to experience translational forces and loops of wire to rotate.
This document outlines the key learning objectives and content covered in Chapter 20 on Electric Circuits. The chapter covers current, resistance, power, Ohm's law, series and parallel circuits, capacitors, and more. The learning objectives are to understand concepts like current, conductivity, resistance, Ohm's law, and how resistors behave in series and parallel combinations. Students should be able to apply concepts like equivalent resistance, voltage division, and Kirchhoff's rules to solve circuit problems. The chapter also covers capacitors and RC circuits.
Ch19 Electric Potential Energy and Electric PotentialScott Thomas
This document provides learning objectives and content about electric potential energy and electric potential. It discusses key concepts such as electric field, electric potential, equipotential surfaces, and capacitors. Specifically, it defines electric potential as electric potential energy per unit charge. It also explains that equipotential surfaces represent positions of equal electric potential and that the electric field is perpendicular to equipotential surfaces. Finally, it introduces capacitors as devices that can store electric potential energy between two conductors, such as the plates of a parallel plate capacitor, and how dielectrics are used to increase a capacitor's capacitance.
This document provides learning objectives and content outlines for an AP Physics chapter on electric forces and electric fields. It begins by listing key concepts students should understand related to electrostatics, including charge, Coulomb's law, and the electric field. It then provides an outline of the chapter sections, which cover the origin of electricity, charged objects and the electric force, conductors and insulators, methods of charging, Coulomb's law, the electric field, and other topics. Tables of contents and examples are also included.
The document provides learning objectives and content for a chapter on thermodynamics. It covers key concepts like the first and second laws of thermodynamics, thermal processes, and using the ideal gas law. For thermal processes using ideal gases, it defines equations for isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric and isochoric processes. Examples are provided for calculating work done during isothermal expansion of an ideal gas and adiabatic compression. The chapter sections will address thermodynamic systems, the laws of thermodynamics, thermal processes, processes for ideal gases, and applications like heat engines and entropy.
The document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 14 on the ideal gas law and kinetic theory. Section 1 discusses molecular mass, the mole, and Avogadro's number. Section 2 covers the ideal gas law and how pressure, volume, temperature, and moles are related. Section 3 introduces the kinetic theory model, which describes gases as large numbers of constantly moving particles and explains gas properties and behaviors in terms of particle collisions and kinetic energy.
This chapter discusses heat transfer through conduction, convection, and radiation. It begins by explaining convection as the transfer of heat by the bulk movement of fluids such as occurring in hot water baseboard heating. Conduction is defined as the transfer of heat through direct contact between particles via collisions. The rate of conduction depends on properties like thickness, area, temperature difference and thermal conductivity. Radiation is the transfer of heat via electromagnetic waves and follows the Stefan-Boltzmann law. The chapter covers applications of heat transfer principles like insulation and cooking stoves.
The document discusses key concepts in temperature and heat, including:
1. It introduces common temperature scales like Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin scales. It explains how each scale was developed and their distinguishing features.
2. It discusses concepts like thermal expansion - both linear and volumetric expansion. Linear expansion explains how the length of an object changes with temperature, while volumetric expansion explains how the volume changes.
3. It provides examples of calculating temperature conversions between different scales, as well as examples of using equations of linear and volumetric expansion to solve problems involving changes in length or volume due to temperature changes.
This document provides a summary of key concepts in two-dimensional kinematics and projectile motion. It begins by defining displacement, velocity, and acceleration in two dimensions. It then discusses solving kinematics problems by resolving vectors into horizontal and vertical components. The document also covers projectile motion, where the horizontal velocity is constant and vertical acceleration is due to gravity. It ends by discussing relative velocity problems involving adding velocities of objects moving relative to each other or to a fixed point.
This document outlines the course structure, grading policy, and test schedule for an AP Physics C class. The course will cover Newtonian mechanics, fluids, thermodynamics, electricity, magnetism, waves, optics, and modern physics over 3 quarters. Grades are based on online homework, in-class quizzes, lab reports, and tests. There are 3 or 4 tests each quarter covering multiple choice and free response questions on recent content. The course aims to prepare students to take the AP Physics C exam in May.
12. Conceptual Example 1 Atoms are Mostly Empty Space In the planetary (Bohr) model of the atom, the nucleus (radius = 10 -15 m) is analogous to the sun (radius = 7x10 8 m). Electrons orbit (radius = 10 -10 m) the nucleus like the earth orbits (radius = 1.5x10 11 m) the sun. If the dimensions of the solar system had the same proportions as those of the atom, would the earth be closer to or farther away from the sun than it actually is? The Earth would need to be 10x farther from the sun than Pluto
13. 30.1.1. Which one of the following statements concerning the plum-pudding model of the atom is false? a) Positive charge is spread uniformly throughout the plum-pudding model atom. b) Negative electrons are dispersed uniformly within the positively charged “pudding” within the plum-pudding model atom. c) There is no nucleus at the center of the plum-pudding model atom. d) The plum-pudding model was proven correct in experiments by Ernest Rutherford. e) The plum-pudding model was proposed by Joseph J. Thomson.
14. 30.1.2. Which of the following atomic models is most representative of the current model of the atom? a) Wave model b) Thomson model c) Rutherford model d) Bohr model e) Witten model
15. 30.1.3. Why was the observation of backscattered alpha particles so surprising to Rutherford in his experiment? a) He thought atoms were mostly empty space, which couldn’t scatter material particles. b) He realized that the positive charge must be concentrated in a very small region within the atom. c) He was trying to produce flashes of light on a zinc sulfide screen; and there were none. d) He thought alpha particles were waves that would simply be diffracted by the gold atoms. e) He was trying to produce lead from gold by using the alpha particles; and they weren’t absorbed by the gold.
17. Line Spectra The individual wavelengths emitted by two gases and the continuous spectrum of the sun.
18. The Line Spectrum of Hydrogen Lyman series Balmer series Paschen series
19. 30.2.1. Experiments show that each element in the periodic table has a unique set of spectral lines. What is the best explanation for this observation? a) Each element has a unique nucleus. b) The number of electrons within each atom is unique. c) Each element has a unique set of interactions between its electrons and its protons. d) The motion of the electrons within each atom is unique. e) Each atom has a unique set of energy levels.
20. 30.2.2. Using the planetary model of the atom, an electron is orbiting a nucleus with a speed of 0.02 c at a distance of 5 10 11 m. Since the electron is orbiting, it is also accelerating. What is the frequency of light emitted as the electron orbits? a) No light is emitted from the atom in this case. b) 1.91 10 16 Hz c) 9.55 10 15 Hz d) 3.04 10 15 Hz e) 2.15 10 15 Hz
21. 30.2.3. What happens to an atom when it emits a photon? a) The mass of the atom increases. b) The mass of the atom remains the same. c) The mass of the atom decreases. d) The mass of the atom temporarily becomes negative.
22. Chapter 30: The Nature of the Atom Section 3: The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
23. Bohr Model of H Atom In the Bohr model, a photon is emitted when the electron drops from a larger, higher-energy orbit to a smaller, lower energy orbit.
30. 30.3.1. Which one of the following statements concerning the Bohr model is false? a) The Bohr model could accurately calculate the wavelengths of the spectral lines of hydrogen. b) The Bohr model explained why accelerating electrons did not radiate. c) The Bohr model accounted for the stability of the hydrogen atom. d) The Bohr model explained the relative intensities of various hydrogen spectral lines. e) The Bohr model could not accurately calculate the spectral lines of non-hydrogen atoms.
31. 30.3.2. In the Bohr model, what is the angular momentum of the electron in the ground state of the hydrogen atom? a) zero b) h c) h / d) h /(2 ) e) any of the above values
32. 30.3.3. Which of the following most closely resembles the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom? a) A solid metal sphere with a net positive charge. b) A hollow metal sphere with a net negative charge. c) A tray full of mud with pebbles uniformly distributed throughout. d) The Moon orbits the Earth. e) Two balls, one large and one small, connected by a spring.
33. 30.3.4. Imagine an atom that has only four possible, discrete energy levels. Assuming that all transitions between these levels are allowed, how many spectral lines can this imaginary atom produce? a) 8 b) 7 c) 6 d) 5 e) more than 8
34. 30.3.5. The figure shows an energy level diagram for the hydrogen atom. Several transitions are shown and are labeled by letters. Note : The diagram is not drawn to scale. Which transition corresponds to the absorption of the photon with the longest wavelength? a) A b) B c) C d) D e) E
35. 30.3.6. The figure shows an energy level diagram for the hydrogen atom. Several transitions are shown and are labeled by letters. Note : The diagram is not drawn to scale. Which transition involves the longest wavelength line in the visible portion of the hydrogen spectrum? a) A b) B c) C d) D e) E
36. 30.3.7. Which of the following statements concerning electromagnetic waves emitted from atoms is true? a) A collection of atoms emits electromagnetic radiation only at specific wavelengths. b) Atoms only emit radiation in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum. c) Free atoms have 3 n unique lines in their atomic spectra, where n is the number of electrons. d) The wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation emitted by free atoms is specifically characteristic of the particular element.
37. Chapter 30: The Nature of the Atom Section 4: De Broglie’s Expanation of Bohr’s Assumption about Angular Momentum
38. De Broglie Explanation De Broglie suggested standing particle waves as an explanation for Bohr’s angular momentum assumption.
39. 30.4.1. What is the primary reason electrons occupy orbits with particular energies in atoms? a) The electric force acts only at particular distances. b) Electrons are particles that come in particular sizes. c) Electrons are limited by Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle to occupy only certain positions. d) The strong nuclear force determines the particular electron orbits. e) The particular orbit has a circumference that is an integer number of electron wavelengths.
40. 30.4.2. Which one of the following assumptions did Bohr make in his model of the atom that was later confirmed by de Broglie? a) The electron orbital momentum is quantized. b) The charge of an electron is quantized. c) The wavelength of an electron is quantized. d) The electron orbit would be stable only if the circumference contained an integral number of electron wavelengths. e) The nucleus of the atom contains an integer number of protons and neutrons.
41. 30.4.3. How did de Broglie interpret the nature of the electron in the Bohr model? a) The electron is a particle that orbits the nucleus much like a planet orbits the Sun. b) The electron is a particle wave and an integer number of its wavelength fit into the circumference of a given orbit. c) The electron helps to hold the nucleus together via the Coulomb force. d) All of the electrons within atoms occupy a single orbit. e) The electron in the hydrogen atom is always found in the ground state.
42. 30.4.4. Why didn’t Bohr’s model of the atom yield completely accurate results? a) Bohr failed to treat the electron as a confined matter wave. b) The potential well is infinite only for the hydrogen atom. c) All atoms larger than hydrogen have neutrons. d) Bohr did not believe in quantum mechanics and didn’t include quantization in his model.
43. Chapter 30: The Nature of the Atom Section 5: The Quantum Mechanical Picture of the Hydrogen Atom
47. Example 5 The Bohr Model Versus Quantum Mechanics Determine the number of possible states for the hydrogen atom when the principal quantum number is (a) n=1 and (b) n=2.
60. 30.5.1. Which one of the following statements concerning the electron in the ground state in a hydrogen atom is true within the quantum mechanical model of the atom? a) The ground state electron has zero ionization energy. b) The ground state electron has zero orbital angular momentum. c) The ground state electron has zero binding energy. d) The ground state electron has zero spin angular momentum. e) The ground state electron has zero kinetic energy.
61. 30.5.2. A hydrogen atom is in a state for which the principle quantum number is n = 2. How many possible states are there for which the magnetic quantum number is equal to one? a) zero b) one c) two d) four e) six
62. 30.5.3. A hydrogen atom is in a state for which the principle quantum number is six and the magnetic quantum number is three. What are the possible values for the orbital quantum number? a) 0 or 3 only b) 3 or 5 only c) 4 or 6 only d) 3, 4, or 5 only e) 4, 5, or 6 only
63. 30.5.4. Which one of the following sets of quantum numbers is not possible? n l m l m s a) 2 3 2 +1/2 b) 4 3 +2 +1/2 c) 3 1 0 1/2 d) 6 2 1 +1/2 e) 5 4 4 1/2
64. 30.5.5. An electron in a hydrogen atom is described by the quantum numbers: n = 8 and . What are the possible values for the orbital quantum number ? a) only 0 or 4 b) only 4 or 7 c) only 5 or 8 d) only 5, 6, 7, or 8 e) only 4, 5, 6, or 7
65. 30.5.6. Which one of the following values of is not possible for = 2? a) zero b) 1 c) +1 d) +2 e) +3
66. 30.5.7. For a given principal quantum number, can the angular momentum ever have a value of zero? a) While the Bohr model indicates the answer is “no,” quantum mechanics allows a value of zero. b) Both the Bohr model and quantum mechanics indicate the answer is “yes.” c) While quantum mechanics indicates the answer is “yes,” the Bohr model allows a value of zero. d) Both the Bohr model and quantum mechanics indicate the answer is “no.”
67. Chapter 30: The Nature of the Atom Section 6: The Pauli Exclusion Principle and the Periodic Table of the Elements
68.
69. Example 8 Ground States of Atoms Determine which of the energy levels in the figure are occupied by the electrons in the ground state of hydrogen, helium, lithium, beryllium, and boron.
71. 30.6.1. Which one of the following subshells is not compatible with a principle quantum number of n = 4? a) d b) f c) g d) p e) s
72. 30.6.2. A neutral atom has the following electronic configuration: 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 5 . How many electrons are in the L shell of this atom? a) 2 b) 4 c) 6 d) 7 e) 8
73. 30.6.3. A neutral atom has the following electronic configuration: 1s 2 2s 2 2p 5 . How many protons are in the nucleus of this atom? a) 3 b) 5 c) 9 d) 16 e) There is no way to tell from an electron configuration.
74. 30.6.4. Determine the maximum number of electron states with principal quantum number n = 3? a) 2 b) 3 c) 6 d) 9 e) 18
75. 30.6.5. The ground state electronic configuration of a neon atom is 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 . How many of these electrons have magnetic quantum number m l = 0? a) 2 b) 4 c) 6 d) 8 e) 10
76. 30.6.6. Consider the following list of electron configurations: (1) 1s 2 2s 2 3s 2 (4) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 (2) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 (5) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2 3d 6 (3) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1 Which electronic configuration is characteristic of noble gases? a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4 e) 5
81. 30.7.1. Which one of the following statements concerning the cutoff wavelength typically exhibited in X-ray spectra is true? a) The cutoff wavelength depends on the instrument used to detect the X-rays. b) The cutoff wavelength depends on the target material. c) The cutoff wavelength occurs because an incident electron cannot give up all of its energy. d) The cutoff wavelength occurs because of the mutual shielding effects of K-shell electrons. e) The cutoff wavelength depends on the potential difference across the X-ray tube.
82. 30.7.2. Consider the two graphs shown that are labeled A and B for X-ray intensity per unit wavelength versus wavelength. Which of the following statements is true? a) The X-ray tubes are operating at different potential differences. b) The X-ray tubes contain different elements. c) The X-ray tubes are identical. d) The tube represented by graph B is operating at a higher potential difference than the tube represented by graph A. e) All of the above statements are true.
88. 30.8.1. Which one of the following statements best explains why a neon sign does not emit visible light after it is turned off? a) All of the neon atoms have principle quantum number n = 0. b) All of the neon atoms are ionized. c) None of the neon atoms are in the n = 2 state. d) Most of the neon atoms are in the ground state. e) Only some of the neon atoms have returned to the n = 1 state.
89. 30.8.2. An electron makes a transition from a higher energy state to a lower one without any external provocation. As a result of the transition, a photon is emitted and moves in a random direction. What is the name of this emission process? a) stationary emission b) spontaneous emission c) spectral emission d) stimulated emission e) specular emission
90. Chapter 30: The Nature of the Atom Section 9: Medical Applications of the LASER
91. Medical Uses of LASERs Lasers being used to change the shape of the cornea.