The document summarizes key aspects of cell structure and function at the cellular, tissue, organ, and system levels. It describes the basic components of the cell including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, organelles like the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and lysosomes. It explains their structures, functions in cellular processes like transport and synthesis, and how they allow the cell to survive. The document also discusses how cells combine to form tissues, organs, and organ systems that work together for organism survival.
The document summarizes key concepts in cell physiology:
- Cells are the basic structural and functional units of the body and come in different types like muscle, nerve, and blood cells.
- Cells contain organelles like the nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes that allow different cellular functions.
- The cell membrane forms the boundary of the cell and is semi-permeable, regulating what enters and exits through integral and peripheral proteins as well as cholesterol.
Cells are the basic units of organisms and can only be observed under a microscope. The document then discusses the basic structures of cells including the cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, and various organelles. It explains the functions of these structures and how they allow cells to intake nutrients, produce energy, synthesize proteins, and remove waste. The document also covers cellular processes like diffusion, osmosis, endocytosis, and exocytosis that allow movement of materials into and out of cells.
The document summarizes key aspects of cell structure and function. It describes cells as the smallest functional units of the body that are grouped together to form tissues and organs. The main parts of the cell are then outlined, including the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, cytosol, and various organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. Each organelle's structure and specific functions are briefly explained.
Cell is the basic unit of the body and is composed primarily of water, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. The cell contains membrane-bound organelles that carry out specific functions. Mitochondria produce energy through ATP production. The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus synthesize proteins and lipids. Lysosomes digest materials through hydrolytic enzymes. Cellular waste and debris are removed through autophagy and phagocytosis. Movement of the cell is achieved through ameboid movement and cilia/flagella.
- Cells are the basic structural and functional units of the human body. There are many different types of cells including muscle, nerve, blood cells etc.
- Tissues are groups of cells that perform specific functions. The basic types of tissues include epithelial, muscle, nervous, and connective tissues.
- Organs consist of two or more tissues working together to perform a particular function like the heart, liver, stomach. Systems are associations of organs that work together like the digestive, nervous, circulatory and respiratory systems.
1) The cell membrane acts as a selectively permeable barrier through which substances can pass through either passively (simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis) or actively (active transport), using cellular energy.
2) Passive transport involves diffusion of substances down their concentration gradients through the membrane without cellular energy use, including simple diffusion of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and alcohol, and osmosis of water.
3) Active transport moves substances against their concentration gradients and requires energy in the form of ATP, such as the sodium-potassium pump maintaining ion gradients across the membrane.
human cell anatomy - "cell is a basic structural unit of life" -as all living organism are made up of cells knowing the unique functions of the cell, shape, anatomy , function of organelle, and types of human cell involved are the most important factors and to also understand about -how human cells can play a vital role in our daily life.
The document summarizes key concepts in cell physiology:
- Cells are the basic structural and functional units of the body and come in different types like muscle, nerve, and blood cells.
- Cells contain organelles like the nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes that allow different cellular functions.
- The cell membrane forms the boundary of the cell and is semi-permeable, regulating what enters and exits through integral and peripheral proteins as well as cholesterol.
Cells are the basic units of organisms and can only be observed under a microscope. The document then discusses the basic structures of cells including the cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, and various organelles. It explains the functions of these structures and how they allow cells to intake nutrients, produce energy, synthesize proteins, and remove waste. The document also covers cellular processes like diffusion, osmosis, endocytosis, and exocytosis that allow movement of materials into and out of cells.
The document summarizes key aspects of cell structure and function. It describes cells as the smallest functional units of the body that are grouped together to form tissues and organs. The main parts of the cell are then outlined, including the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, cytosol, and various organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. Each organelle's structure and specific functions are briefly explained.
Cell is the basic unit of the body and is composed primarily of water, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. The cell contains membrane-bound organelles that carry out specific functions. Mitochondria produce energy through ATP production. The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus synthesize proteins and lipids. Lysosomes digest materials through hydrolytic enzymes. Cellular waste and debris are removed through autophagy and phagocytosis. Movement of the cell is achieved through ameboid movement and cilia/flagella.
- Cells are the basic structural and functional units of the human body. There are many different types of cells including muscle, nerve, blood cells etc.
- Tissues are groups of cells that perform specific functions. The basic types of tissues include epithelial, muscle, nervous, and connective tissues.
- Organs consist of two or more tissues working together to perform a particular function like the heart, liver, stomach. Systems are associations of organs that work together like the digestive, nervous, circulatory and respiratory systems.
1) The cell membrane acts as a selectively permeable barrier through which substances can pass through either passively (simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis) or actively (active transport), using cellular energy.
2) Passive transport involves diffusion of substances down their concentration gradients through the membrane without cellular energy use, including simple diffusion of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and alcohol, and osmosis of water.
3) Active transport moves substances against their concentration gradients and requires energy in the form of ATP, such as the sodium-potassium pump maintaining ion gradients across the membrane.
human cell anatomy - "cell is a basic structural unit of life" -as all living organism are made up of cells knowing the unique functions of the cell, shape, anatomy , function of organelle, and types of human cell involved are the most important factors and to also understand about -how human cells can play a vital role in our daily life.
The document provides information on the structure and functions of various cell organelles. It discusses the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. Within the cytoplasm, it describes the organelles with limiting membranes like the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, centrosomes, mitochondria and those without limiting membranes like ribosomes and cytoskeleton. Each organelle is described in terms of its structure, composition, location within the cell and specific functions. The document serves as a comprehensive guide to the essential components within the cell and their roles in maintaining cellular activities.
All living things are made up of cells.
Cells are the smallest working units of all living things.
All cells come from preexisting cells through cell division.
Cell physiology is the biological study of the activities that take place in a cell to keep it alive. The term physiology refers to normal functions in a living organism.
The document discusses the structure and function of human cells. It begins by defining the cell as the basic structural and functional unit of living things, wrapped in a membrane. There are around 100 trillion cells in the human body, each containing the genetic information to produce a human. The document then discusses the discovery of cells by early scientists like Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek using early microscopes. It provides details on the main parts of the human cell, including the nucleus that houses DNA, organelles like mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum, and the cytoplasm. It describes the functions of these various parts and how they work together to keep the cell alive.
This document summarizes a seminar on cell organelles presented by Dr. Simi M. The seminar covered the major cell organelles including the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and ribosomes. It described the structure and functions of each organelle, highlighting their roles in processes like protein synthesis, lipid synthesis, cellular respiration, waste disposal, and more. The history of the discovery of each organelle was also briefly outlined.
The document provides an overview of the organelles found in the cytoplasm of cells. It discusses the structures and functions of key organelles including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, nucleus, ribosomes, and cytoskeleton. The cytoplasm contains these organelles and allows for metabolic activities, waste breakdown, and maintaining the shape of the cell.
The cytoplasm contains three main structural components: organelles, inclusions, and the cytoskeleton. Organelles include the plasma membrane, ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), mitochondria, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis, RER synthesizes membrane-bound proteins, mitochondria generate ATP, and lysosomes digest materials. The cytoskeleton includes microtubules and provides structure, transport, and cell motility.
The document summarizes key components and functions of the cell membrane and cytoplasm. It describes the cell membrane as a selectively permeable phospholipid bilayer that envelops the cell. It also discusses the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane and its integral and peripheral proteins. The cytoplasm is described as containing a cytosol and various organelles, including the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and cytoskeleton. Various types of transport across the cell membrane, such as diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and active transport, are also summarized.
Eukaryotic cells are large and complex cells that contain membrane-bound organelles that perform specialized functions. Key organelles include the nucleus, which houses the cell's DNA; mitochondria, which generate energy; chloroplasts in plant cells, which perform photosynthesis; the endoplasmic reticulum, which modifies proteins; and the Golgi apparatus, which packages proteins for transport within the cell. Eukaryotic cells vary significantly in size and structure depending on their domain - animal, plant, fungus, or protist - but all have these essential membrane-bound organelles that allow compartmentalization of functions.
All organisms are composed of one or more cells, which are the basic unit of life. A typical animal cell contains organelles such as a nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and microtubules. The nucleus houses the cell's DNA and directs cell activities, while organelles such as mitochondria generate energy and the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus modify and transport proteins within the cell. Cells arise only through division of preexisting cells, demonstrating the cell theory that cells are the fundamental unit of life.
HUMAN CYTOLOGY ( CELL AND TISSUE )
PRESENTED BY
BY SONU SHARMA. ROLL NO. 504/16
3RD YEAR B.SC RADIOGRAPHY & IMAGING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF RADIO DIAGNOSIS
PANDIT BHAGWAT DAYAL SHARMA
UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCE AND RESEARCH P.G.I.M.S. ROHTAK,HARYANA.
Contact : - +91-7015728336
Cytoplasm & cell organelles By Manoj Dhital (M.Sc Medical Microbiology))Manoj Dhital
This document provides information on the structure and functions of various cell organelles found in eukaryotic cells, including the cytoplasm, mitochondria, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, ribosomes and vacuoles. It describes their roles in processes like cellular respiration, photosynthesis, protein synthesis, transport of materials within the cell, and storage of molecules.
Here are the answers to the questions:
- Golgi apparatus serves as a primary packaging area for molecules that will be distributed throughout the cell.
- Ribosomes
- Spindle fibers
- Nerve cells
- Lysosomes
- Cell
- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
The plasma membrane surrounds and protects the cell, and is made up of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins. It regulates what passes in and out of the cell through diffusion, channels, carriers, and active transport. The cytoplasm contains organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and mitochondria that carry out specialized functions. The nucleus houses the cell's DNA and directs protein synthesis. Together, these structures and transport mechanisms allow the cell to maintain homeostasis and carry out its functions.
This document provides an overview of key cell organelles:
- The cell membrane controls movement of substances in and out of cells. It consists of a lipid bilayer and embedded proteins.
- Mitochondria produce ATP through respiration and regulate metabolism. They have an outer and inner membrane.
- The Golgi apparatus packages and modifies proteins and lipids in the cell.
- The endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes lipids and proteins. It has rough and smooth regions.
- Lysosomes contain enzymes for breaking down biomolecules through autophagy and endocytosis.
- Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis in the cell.
1. The document describes the structure and functions of a typical animal cell. It discusses the discovery of cells and outlines the components of cells, including the cell membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm.
2. The cell membrane is made of lipids and proteins and acts as a selective barrier for the cell. Transport across the membrane can occur through passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, or active transport powered by the cell.
3. The key components of cells are the cell membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm. Cells are the basic structural and functional units that make up living organisms.
Structure and function of cell,Ribosomes,Endoplasmic raticulum,Golgi apparatu...ShamaDilbar
Cells are the basic building blocks of the body. They were first discovered in the 17th century with the invention of the microscope. The cell theory states that cells are the smallest living units, all new cells come from preexisting cells, and cells contain specialized structures that allow them to carry out life processes. A typical cell contains a plasma membrane, cytoplasm with organelles, and a nucleus containing DNA. The plasma membrane regulates what enters and exits the cell while organelles like the ER, Golgi, mitochondria, and lysosomes carry out specialized functions within the cell.
The cell is the basic unit of life. All organisms are made up of cells (or in some cases, a single cell). Most cells are very small; most are invisible without using a microscope. Cells are covered by a cell membrane and come in many different shapes. The contents of a cell are called the protoplasm.
The document discusses the four main types of tissues in the human body: epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissue. It provides details on the various subtypes of epithelial tissues, including simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified columnar, and stratified epithelial tissues. It also describes the different types of connective tissues, which are found throughout the body, including areolar, reticular, adipose, dense regular, and dense irregular connective tissues. The document outlines the characteristics, structures, locations and functions of each tissue subtype.
Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of relatively constant internal conditions in the body despite changes in the external environment. There are three main types of regulation that work together to achieve homeostasis: chemical/hormonal regulation, nervous regulation, and autoregulation of tissues and organs. Homeostatic mechanisms use either negative or positive feedback loops. Negative feedback loops work to reduce any imbalance, while positive feedback loops intensify an initial stimulus over a short period of time, such as during childbirth.
Lysosomes and peroxisomes are membrane-bound organelles that play important roles in cellular processes. Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes and function in intracellular digestion, breaking down materials through phagocytosis, autophagy, and programmed cell death. Peroxisomes contain enzymes involved in breaking down hydrogen peroxide and performing beta-oxidation of fatty acids. Both are formed by budding from the Golgi apparatus. Defects in the enzymes of lysosomes or peroxisomes can lead to metabolic storage disorders.
Sensory receptors detect stimuli and transmit data about them to the brain. There are several types of sensory receptors located throughout the body that detect senses like touch, temperature, sound, smell, and taste. Sensory receptors respond to stimuli by generating receptor potentials that trigger action potentials along sensory neurons to the central nervous system. The main types of sensory receptors include mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, photoreceptors, and thermoreceptors. Specific receptors like Pacinian corpuscles, Meissner's corpuscles, and Merkel cells are mechanoreceptors in the skin responsible for detecting touch, pressure, and vibration.
The document provides information on the structure and functions of various cell organelles. It discusses the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. Within the cytoplasm, it describes the organelles with limiting membranes like the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, centrosomes, mitochondria and those without limiting membranes like ribosomes and cytoskeleton. Each organelle is described in terms of its structure, composition, location within the cell and specific functions. The document serves as a comprehensive guide to the essential components within the cell and their roles in maintaining cellular activities.
All living things are made up of cells.
Cells are the smallest working units of all living things.
All cells come from preexisting cells through cell division.
Cell physiology is the biological study of the activities that take place in a cell to keep it alive. The term physiology refers to normal functions in a living organism.
The document discusses the structure and function of human cells. It begins by defining the cell as the basic structural and functional unit of living things, wrapped in a membrane. There are around 100 trillion cells in the human body, each containing the genetic information to produce a human. The document then discusses the discovery of cells by early scientists like Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek using early microscopes. It provides details on the main parts of the human cell, including the nucleus that houses DNA, organelles like mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum, and the cytoplasm. It describes the functions of these various parts and how they work together to keep the cell alive.
This document summarizes a seminar on cell organelles presented by Dr. Simi M. The seminar covered the major cell organelles including the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and ribosomes. It described the structure and functions of each organelle, highlighting their roles in processes like protein synthesis, lipid synthesis, cellular respiration, waste disposal, and more. The history of the discovery of each organelle was also briefly outlined.
The document provides an overview of the organelles found in the cytoplasm of cells. It discusses the structures and functions of key organelles including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, nucleus, ribosomes, and cytoskeleton. The cytoplasm contains these organelles and allows for metabolic activities, waste breakdown, and maintaining the shape of the cell.
The cytoplasm contains three main structural components: organelles, inclusions, and the cytoskeleton. Organelles include the plasma membrane, ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), mitochondria, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis, RER synthesizes membrane-bound proteins, mitochondria generate ATP, and lysosomes digest materials. The cytoskeleton includes microtubules and provides structure, transport, and cell motility.
The document summarizes key components and functions of the cell membrane and cytoplasm. It describes the cell membrane as a selectively permeable phospholipid bilayer that envelops the cell. It also discusses the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane and its integral and peripheral proteins. The cytoplasm is described as containing a cytosol and various organelles, including the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and cytoskeleton. Various types of transport across the cell membrane, such as diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and active transport, are also summarized.
Eukaryotic cells are large and complex cells that contain membrane-bound organelles that perform specialized functions. Key organelles include the nucleus, which houses the cell's DNA; mitochondria, which generate energy; chloroplasts in plant cells, which perform photosynthesis; the endoplasmic reticulum, which modifies proteins; and the Golgi apparatus, which packages proteins for transport within the cell. Eukaryotic cells vary significantly in size and structure depending on their domain - animal, plant, fungus, or protist - but all have these essential membrane-bound organelles that allow compartmentalization of functions.
All organisms are composed of one or more cells, which are the basic unit of life. A typical animal cell contains organelles such as a nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and microtubules. The nucleus houses the cell's DNA and directs cell activities, while organelles such as mitochondria generate energy and the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus modify and transport proteins within the cell. Cells arise only through division of preexisting cells, demonstrating the cell theory that cells are the fundamental unit of life.
HUMAN CYTOLOGY ( CELL AND TISSUE )
PRESENTED BY
BY SONU SHARMA. ROLL NO. 504/16
3RD YEAR B.SC RADIOGRAPHY & IMAGING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF RADIO DIAGNOSIS
PANDIT BHAGWAT DAYAL SHARMA
UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCE AND RESEARCH P.G.I.M.S. ROHTAK,HARYANA.
Contact : - +91-7015728336
Cytoplasm & cell organelles By Manoj Dhital (M.Sc Medical Microbiology))Manoj Dhital
This document provides information on the structure and functions of various cell organelles found in eukaryotic cells, including the cytoplasm, mitochondria, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, ribosomes and vacuoles. It describes their roles in processes like cellular respiration, photosynthesis, protein synthesis, transport of materials within the cell, and storage of molecules.
Here are the answers to the questions:
- Golgi apparatus serves as a primary packaging area for molecules that will be distributed throughout the cell.
- Ribosomes
- Spindle fibers
- Nerve cells
- Lysosomes
- Cell
- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
The plasma membrane surrounds and protects the cell, and is made up of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins. It regulates what passes in and out of the cell through diffusion, channels, carriers, and active transport. The cytoplasm contains organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and mitochondria that carry out specialized functions. The nucleus houses the cell's DNA and directs protein synthesis. Together, these structures and transport mechanisms allow the cell to maintain homeostasis and carry out its functions.
This document provides an overview of key cell organelles:
- The cell membrane controls movement of substances in and out of cells. It consists of a lipid bilayer and embedded proteins.
- Mitochondria produce ATP through respiration and regulate metabolism. They have an outer and inner membrane.
- The Golgi apparatus packages and modifies proteins and lipids in the cell.
- The endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes lipids and proteins. It has rough and smooth regions.
- Lysosomes contain enzymes for breaking down biomolecules through autophagy and endocytosis.
- Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis in the cell.
1. The document describes the structure and functions of a typical animal cell. It discusses the discovery of cells and outlines the components of cells, including the cell membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm.
2. The cell membrane is made of lipids and proteins and acts as a selective barrier for the cell. Transport across the membrane can occur through passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, or active transport powered by the cell.
3. The key components of cells are the cell membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm. Cells are the basic structural and functional units that make up living organisms.
Structure and function of cell,Ribosomes,Endoplasmic raticulum,Golgi apparatu...ShamaDilbar
Cells are the basic building blocks of the body. They were first discovered in the 17th century with the invention of the microscope. The cell theory states that cells are the smallest living units, all new cells come from preexisting cells, and cells contain specialized structures that allow them to carry out life processes. A typical cell contains a plasma membrane, cytoplasm with organelles, and a nucleus containing DNA. The plasma membrane regulates what enters and exits the cell while organelles like the ER, Golgi, mitochondria, and lysosomes carry out specialized functions within the cell.
The cell is the basic unit of life. All organisms are made up of cells (or in some cases, a single cell). Most cells are very small; most are invisible without using a microscope. Cells are covered by a cell membrane and come in many different shapes. The contents of a cell are called the protoplasm.
The document discusses the four main types of tissues in the human body: epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous tissue. It provides details on the various subtypes of epithelial tissues, including simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified columnar, and stratified epithelial tissues. It also describes the different types of connective tissues, which are found throughout the body, including areolar, reticular, adipose, dense regular, and dense irregular connective tissues. The document outlines the characteristics, structures, locations and functions of each tissue subtype.
Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of relatively constant internal conditions in the body despite changes in the external environment. There are three main types of regulation that work together to achieve homeostasis: chemical/hormonal regulation, nervous regulation, and autoregulation of tissues and organs. Homeostatic mechanisms use either negative or positive feedback loops. Negative feedback loops work to reduce any imbalance, while positive feedback loops intensify an initial stimulus over a short period of time, such as during childbirth.
Lysosomes and peroxisomes are membrane-bound organelles that play important roles in cellular processes. Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes and function in intracellular digestion, breaking down materials through phagocytosis, autophagy, and programmed cell death. Peroxisomes contain enzymes involved in breaking down hydrogen peroxide and performing beta-oxidation of fatty acids. Both are formed by budding from the Golgi apparatus. Defects in the enzymes of lysosomes or peroxisomes can lead to metabolic storage disorders.
Sensory receptors detect stimuli and transmit data about them to the brain. There are several types of sensory receptors located throughout the body that detect senses like touch, temperature, sound, smell, and taste. Sensory receptors respond to stimuli by generating receptor potentials that trigger action potentials along sensory neurons to the central nervous system. The main types of sensory receptors include mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, photoreceptors, and thermoreceptors. Specific receptors like Pacinian corpuscles, Meissner's corpuscles, and Merkel cells are mechanoreceptors in the skin responsible for detecting touch, pressure, and vibration.
This document discusses cell structure and specialization. It defines cells as the basic unit of life and identifies their main parts as the nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane. The document explains that while all cells share these basic components, they come in many shapes and forms due to specialization. Specialized cells take on specific functions like transporting oxygen (red blood cells), movement (muscle cells), and defense (white blood cells). The adaptive features of different cell types allow organisms to carry out vital processes through systems of specialized cell types working together.
Positive and negative feedback are mechanisms the body uses to return to homeostasis. Positive feedback involves exaggerating the body's response, while negative feedback more directly works to restore normal conditions. Examples of negative feedback include perspiration and shivering, which help regulate body temperature back to normal levels.
1. The document discusses the structure and organization of plant and animal cells. It describes the organelles found in typical plant and animal cells including the cell membrane, nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, cell wall, vacuoles, and endoplasmic reticulum.
2. Modifications of cells are discussed to allow specialized functions. Examples given are red blood cells for oxygen transport, root hair cells for water absorption, and xylem vessels for water conduction.
3. Cells are organized into tissues, organs and systems to allow the functioning of multicellular organisms. Not all organisms are multicellular - some like amoebas are unicellular.
This document discusses cell structure and organization. It defines key terms like organelle, cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm and compares typical plant and animal cells. It explains how cell structure relates to function in cells like root hair cells, xylem vessels and red blood cells. Finally, it describes how cells work together to form tissues, organs and organ systems within multicellular organisms.
Specialized cells in plants and animals have unique structures and functions. The document discusses several types of specialized cells including red blood cells, white blood cells, nerve cells, muscle cells, sperm cells, egg cells, root hair cells, palisade cells, and xylem cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body while white blood cells protect the body by killing bacteria. Nerve cells carry electrical signals and coordinate functions. Muscle cells allow movement by contracting. Sperm and egg cells are reproductive cells that combine during fertilization. Root hair cells absorb water and minerals in plant roots. Palisade cells contain chloroplasts to perform photosynthesis. Xylem cells transport water and provide structure in plant stems.
This document summarizes key aspects of cell physiology:
- Cells are the basic structural and functional units of the body and come in many types like muscle, nerve, and blood cells.
- The cell membrane encloses the cell and regulates what enters and exits. It is made of lipids and proteins arranged in a bilayer.
- Organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes perform specialized functions inside the cell.
- Mitochondria generate energy for cells through cellular respiration. The endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus help synthesize and transport proteins and lipids.
Cell :Structure & Functions for Medical and Health allied StudentsRajendra Dev Bhatt
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms.
It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life.
The cell its organells and their functionsSumama Shakir
The document provides information on the structure and functions of eukaryotic cells and their organelles. It discusses the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and describes the major organelles found in animal and plant cells - including the cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, centrosomes, and ribosomes. Each organelle is described in terms of its location, structure, and specific functions within the cell.
1. A cell is the smallest unit capable of performing life functions and all living things are composed of cells.
2. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotic cells which lack a membrane-bound nucleus and eukaryotic cells which have a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles.
3. Key cell organelles include the nucleus which houses genetic material, mitochondria which generate energy, the endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus which aid in protein transport and modification, and plastids and chloroplasts which perform photosynthesis in plant cells. Together, these organelles allow the cell to carry out all functions necessary for life.
The document discusses the history and components of cells. It notes that cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 and that the cell theory, stating that cells are the fundamental unit of life, was developed by biologists Schleiden and Schwann in 1838-1839. The document then describes the main parts of plant and animal cells, including the cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and various organelles such as chloroplasts, mitochondria, and lysosomes. It explains the functions of these cellular components such as the nucleus controlling cell functions and chloroplasts facilitating photosynthesis.
Cell structure slideshare.pptx Unlocking the Secrets of Cells: Structure, Fun...ananyagirishbabu1
Dive into the intricate world of cells with our detailed Slideshare presentation. This educational resource is designed to provide a thorough understanding of cells, the fundamental building blocks of all living organisms. Ideal for students, educators, and biology enthusiasts, this presentation covers:
Introduction to Cell Theory: Discover the historical development of cell theory and its significance in modern biology.
Types of Cells: Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, highlighting their unique features and functions.
Cell Organelles and Their Functions: Explore the various organelles within a cell, such as the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and more, each described with their specific roles.
Cell Membrane Structure and Function: Learn about the composition and function of the cell membrane, including its role in regulating the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
Cell Division and Reproduction: Understand the processes of mitosis and meiosis, key to cellular replication and genetic diversity.
Specialized Cells: Investigate the diversity of cell types, including muscle cells, nerve cells, and blood cells, and their specialized functions in multicellular organisms.
Interactive Diagrams and Visual Aids: Engage with detailed diagrams and illustrations that clarify complex concepts and enhance learning.Introduction to Cell Theory: Discover the historical development of cell theory and its significance in modern biology.
Types of Cells: Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, highlighting their unique features and functions.
Cell Organelles and Their Functions: Explore the various organelles within a cell, such as the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and more, each described with their specific roles.
Cell Membrane Structure and Function: Learn about the composition and function of the cell membrane, including its role in regulating the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
Cell Division and Reproduction: Understand the processes of mitosis and meiosis, key to cellular replication and genetic diversity.
Specialized Cells: Investigate the diversity of cell types, including muscle cells, nerve cells, and blood cells, and their specialized functions in multicellular organisms.
Interactive Diagrams and Visual Aids: Engage with detailed diagrams and illustrations that clarify complex concepts and enhance learning.
This Slideshare presentation is a valuable educational tool, offering clear explanations and engaging visuals to help you grasp the essential concepts of cellular biology. Whether preparing for exams, teaching a class, or simply exploring the microscopic foundations of life, this resource provides a comprehensive overview of the fascinating world of cells. Explore the fascinating world of cells with our comprehensive SlideShare presentation. This educational resource delves into the fundamental unit of life,
The document provides an overview of cell physiology by describing the key components and organelles of the cell, including the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and how cells carry out functions of living organisms like nutrition, respiration and growth through these cellular structures. It also discusses cell replication through mitosis and meiosis and how chromosomes are passed from parents to offspring.
The document summarizes the structures and functions of animal cells. It discusses that animal cells contain a nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope that houses the cell's genetic material. The cytoplasm contains various membrane-bound organelles that perform specialized functions like mitochondria which generate energy, the endoplasmic reticulum which synthesizes proteins, and lysosomes which digest waste. The plasma membrane encloses the cell and regulates what enters and exits, and the cytoskeleton maintains the cell's shape.
The document summarizes the key components of the cell including the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. It provides details on the structure and functions of the plasma membrane, including the lipid bilayer structure and roles of membrane proteins. It then describes the two main parts of the cytoplasm - the cytosol and organelles within it. Specific organelles are outlined like the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. The nucleus is noted as housing the cell's DNA within chromosomes.
At the end of this session, the student should be able to:
a. Describe the organization of the cell.
b. List the membranous structures of the cell and describe briefly the structure of the cell membrane.
c. List the cellular organelles and describe briefly the functions of each.
med_students0
The document discusses various cell organelles and their functions. It describes that the cell nucleus contains the genetic material and controls the cell. The nucleus houses the nucleolus. Other organelles discussed include the endoplasmic reticulum, which transports proteins; ribosomes, which synthesize proteins; the Golgi apparatus, which processes and packages substances; lysosomes, which digest unwanted material; mitochondria, which produce energy; and their discoverers. Fun facts are provided about DNA, the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and mitochondria.
2 Plant Cell physiology and their role ttBhim Joshi
The document provides information on the structure and functions of plant cells. It discusses the key components of plant cells including the cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, vacuoles, mitochondria, plastids, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi bodies, lysosomes and nucleus. The cell wall provides shape and protection, while the cell membrane regulates what enters and exits the cell. The cytoplasm contains organelles that carry out important processes like respiration, photosynthesis, protein synthesis, and waste removal. The vacuole stores water, nutrients and pigments.
The document discusses the structure and functions of eukaryotic cells. It describes the key organelles of the cell including the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, cytosol and cytoskeleton. The cell contains these specialized subcellular structures that allow it to carry out different metabolic processes and maintain homeostasis.
The document discusses cell structure and function at both the prokaryotic and eukaryotic levels. It begins by introducing the basic living unit of structure and function as the cell, noting there are over 100 trillion cells in the human body. It then covers cell size, number and variety across organisms. The rest of the document delves into more specific structures and organelles at both the prokaryotic and eukaryotic levels, including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and differences in cellular specialization between unicellular and multicellular organisms.
This document provides an overview of cell structure and function. It begins with the cell theory proposed by Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann stating that all living organisms are made of cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and new cells are formed from existing cells. It then discusses the organization of eukaryotic cells, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, organelles like mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. The document also covers intercellular junctions, the physical structure of the cell membrane, and processes of endocytosis, pinocytosis, and phagocytosis.
The document discusses the structure and functions of human cells. It begins by defining the cell as the structural and functional unit of living organisms, and describes some key discoveries in cell biology. It then outlines the main structures and organelles found within cells, including the cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and microtubules. The functions of these structures are also summarized. The document concludes by explaining different mechanisms of transport across cell membranes, such as passive transport via diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
Lecture No 004.1 Cell_structure_function.pptsamiiikhan5264
The document discusses the structure and function of cells. It defines cells as the basic unit of life and describes their varying sizes and shapes. The key components of cells are then outlined, including the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. The functions of these structures are explained. The document also covers cellular transport mechanisms, cell division, and cell death.
Similar to Cells as the living units of the body (20)
The document discusses the anatomy and physiology of the autonomic nervous system. It describes:
1. The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems which work antagonistically to control involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion.
2. The sympathetic nervous system is activated during fight or flight responses and increases heart rate and blood pressure while the parasympathetic nervous system acts to conserve energy and support digestive processes.
3. Both systems use a two-neuron pathway with preganglionic neurons originating in the CNS and synapsing in autonomic ganglia, and postganglionic neurons extending to target organs.
The document discusses various physiological changes that occur in a woman's body during pregnancy. It notes increases in the size of organs like the uterus, breasts, and vagina. It also discusses weight gain, increased metabolism and cardiac output, higher blood volume, greater respiration, and changes to the urinary system. The document further explains the conditions of preeclampsia and eclampsia, which involve high blood pressure, protein in the urine, and can potentially lead to seizures.
The document discusses different types of shock including hypovolemic, cardiogenic, distributive, and obstructive shock. It describes the causes, signs, and stages of each type. The main points are:
1) Shock is defined medically as a condition where tissues do not receive enough oxygen and nutrients due to reduced blood flow, which can lead to cellular death and organ failure.
2) The four main types are hypovolemic from blood/fluid loss, cardiogenic from heart issues, distributive from vasodilation, and obstructive from physical blockages.
3) Shock progresses through compensated, progressive, and irreversible stages and causes further deterioration if not treated by restoring blood volume
Neurons are the basic functional units of the nervous system. They are electrically excitable cells that process and transmit information. The basic parts of a neuron include dendrites, which receive inputs; the soma, where the nucleus is located; and the axon, which carries signals to other neurons. Neurons can be classified structurally as unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar, and functionally as sensory, motor, or interneurons. They communicate via synaptic transmission at connections called synapses.
Testosterone's effects occur through binding to androgen receptors or by aromatization to estradiol. It stimulates protein synthesis in target tissues like the prostate. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary to secrete LH and FSH, controlling testosterone and sperm production. Negative feedback loops regulate these processes. Abnormalities can include prostate diseases and hypogonadism.
Skeletal muscle is composed of bundles of muscle fibers that contain filaments of actin and myosin. Contraction occurs through a sliding filament mechanism when calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in response to an action potential, causing the actin and myosin filaments to interact and shorten the muscle. The sarcoplasmic reticulum plays a key role in muscle contraction by storing and releasing calcium ions in response to electrical signals transmitted via the motor nerve.
The male reproductive system produces sperm through the process of spermatogenesis. Sperm develop in the testes through meiosis and undergo maturation as they pass through the epididymis. Mature sperm are stored in the vas deferens until ejaculation. During sexual intercourse, sperm are ejaculated through the urethra along with fluids from the seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands. The alkaline fluids help activate the sperm. Capacitation allows the sperm to penetrate and fertilize an ovum in the female reproductive tract.
This document discusses different types of headaches including their causes, symptoms, and characteristics. It describes tension headaches, migraines, sinus headaches, and toxic headaches. It explains that headaches can be caused by issues inside or outside the skull, such as problems with blood vessels, muscles, eyes, sinuses, infections, or toxic exposures. The majority of headaches are benign and self-limiting, but some rare headaches can signal serious underlying conditions.
Headaches can have many different causes. They are generally classified into primary headaches like tension headaches and migraines, which are benign and self-limiting, and secondary headaches caused by underlying conditions like meningitis, brain tumors, or head injuries. The brain itself is not sensitive to pain, but structures like the blood vessels, dura, and sinuses surrounding it can stimulate pain fibers when tugged, stretched, or inflamed. Different areas of stimulation lead to pain being referred to specific parts of the head. Common primary headaches include tension, migraine, and sinus headaches.
The document discusses blood groups and the ABO and Rh blood type systems. It explains that blood groups are determined by the presence of antigens on red blood cells and the presence of corresponding antibodies in plasma. The major blood groups are defined by the presence of A antigens, B antigens, both, or neither. The Rh system defines if the RhD antigen is present or absent. Hemolytic disease of the newborn can occur if an Rh- mother has an Rh+ baby due to maternal antibodies attacking the fetal blood cells.
"Complement" describes a system of about 20 proteins, many of which are enzyme precursors. The principal actors in this system are 11 proteins designated C1 through C9, B, and D,
All these are present normally among the plasma proteins in the blood as well as among the proteins that leak out of the capillaries into the tissue spaces.
The enzyme precursors are normally inactive, but they can be activated mainly by the so-called classic pathway.
Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues and returns carbon dioxide from tissues back to the lungs. It is composed of four heme groups with iron and globin proteins containing two alpha and two beta chains. Hemoglobin concentration is normally 13.5-18 g/dL in men and 11.5-16 g/dL in women. Polycythemia is a condition with an increased total number of red blood cells and can be primary due to bone marrow abnormalities or secondary due to factors like living at high altitudes.
The document discusses blood groups and the ABO and Rh blood type systems. It explains that blood groups are determined by the presence of antigens on red blood cells and corresponding antibodies in plasma. The major blood groups - A, B, AB, and O - are defined by their antigen and antibody profiles. The Rh system involves the RhD antigen, and Rh disease can occur when an Rh-negative mother is pregnant with an Rh-positive baby. Symptoms in severe cases include anemia, jaundice, enlarged organs and fluid buildup in the fetus or newborn.
The document discusses blood groups and the Rh factor. It explains that blood groups are determined by the presence of antigens on red blood cells and corresponding antibodies in plasma. The main blood groups are A, B, AB, and O. The Rh factor refers to the presence or absence of the RhD antigen. Hemolytic disease of the newborn can occur when a mother is Rh-negative and carries a Rh-positive baby. This can be prevented by Rh immune globulin injections during pregnancy. Symptoms in affected newborns include anemia, jaundice, and organ enlargement.
This document discusses the structure and functions of different types of leukocytes (white blood cells) found in the blood. It describes the characteristics and roles of granulocytes like neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. It also summarizes monocytes, lymphocytes, platelets, and plasma cells - discussing their origins, structures, and functions in the immune system and blood clotting process.
This document discusses the structure and functions of different types of leukocytes (white blood cells) found in the blood. It describes the characteristics and roles of granulocytes like neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. It also summarizes monocytes, lymphocytes, platelets, and plasma cells - discussing their origins, structures, and functions in the immune system and blood clotting process.
The document discusses white blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes. It describes their role in the immune system, where they patrol the body for signs of infection and attack invading germs through processes like phagocytosis. There are different types of WBCs, including granulocytes like neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils, as well as agranulocytes like lymphocytes and monocytes. The document provides details on their functions, mechanisms of action, and importance in fighting disease.
The document discusses red blood cells (erythrocytes), including their shape, size, concentration in blood, lifespan, and production through erythropoiesis in the bone marrow from pluripotential hematopoietic stem cells that differentiate into committed stem cells for specific blood cell types like erythrocytes. Red blood cells are biconcave disks that carry oxygen to tissues via hemoglobin and have an average lifespan of 120 days before being broken down and replaced by new red blood cells constantly produced in the bone marrow.
- Red blood cells (erythrocytes) transport oxygen from the lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues back to the lungs. They develop from stem cells in the bone marrow in a multi-step process called erythropoiesis.
- Mature red blood cells are biconcave disks that are flexible and can change shape, allowing them to flow through narrow blood vessels. They contain the protein hemoglobin which binds oxygen and gives blood its red color.
- Red blood cells have an average lifespan of 120 days, after which they are broken down and recycled. Around 2.5 million new red blood cells are produced every second to replace those that die off.
More from Dr. Alamzeb Associate professor ,HOD Physiology Saidu Medical College saidu Sharif Swat Pakistan (20)
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
3. Physiology
Science that describes how organisms FUNCTION
and survive in continually changing environments
Dr Alamzeb Khan 3
4. CELL:
DEFINITION:
Cell is the structure and
functional unit of all
life….
Living components is
called protoplasm
Discovery:
For the first time by
Robert Hook
Robert Brown
discovered the nucleus
in plant cell
T.Schwan discovered
animal cell for the first
time
5. Cells as the Living Units of the Body
CELLULAR LEVEL - cells are the basic structural and
functional units of the human body & there are many different
types of cells (e.g., muscle, nerve, blood, and so on)
Dr Alamzeb Khan 5
6. Basic Characteristics
In all cells, oxygen reacts with carbohydrate, fat,
and protein to release the energy required for
cell function.
General chemical mechanisms for changing
nutrients into energy are basically the same in all
cells
All cells deliver end products of their chemical
reactions into the surrounding fluids.
Almost all cells have the ability to reproduce
their own kind
Dr Alamzeb Khan 6
7. TISSUE LEVEL - a tissue is a group of cells
that perform a specific function .The basic types
of tissues in the human body include epithelial,
muscle, nervous, and connective tissues
Dr Alamzeb Khan 7
8. ORGAN LEVEL - an organ consists of 2 or
more tissues that perform a particular function
(e.g., heart, liver, stomach, and so on)
SYSTEM LEVEL - an association of organs
that have a common function; the major systems
in the human body include digestive, nervous,
endocrine, circulatory, respiratory, urinary, and
reproductive.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 8
9. There are two types of cells that
make up all living things on
earth:
prokaryotic
Eukaryotic.
Prokaryotic cells, like bacteria,
have no 'nucleus', while
eukaryotic cells, like those of the
human body, do.
Human cell is enclosed by a cell,
or plasma, membrane. Enclosed
by that membrane is the
cytoplasm (with associated
organelles) plus a nucleus.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 9
10. Two major parts of the cell Organization of the
are the nucleus and the Cell
cytoplasm
The nucleus is separated
from the cytoplasm by a
nuclear membrane, and the
cytoplasm is separated from
the surrounding fluids by a
cell membrane, also called the
plasma membrane
The different substances
that make up the cell are
collectively called protoplasm.
Protoplasm is composed
mainly of five basic
substances: water,
electrolytes, proteins, lipids,
and carbohydrates. Dr Alamzeb Khan 10
11. Cell, or Plasma, membrane - encloses every human cell
Structure - 2 primary building blocks include protein (about
60% of the membrane) and lipid, or fat (about 40% of the
membrane). The primary lipid is called phospholipid, and
molecules of phospholipid form a 'phospholipid bilayer' (two
layers of phospholipid molecules). This bilayer forms
because the two 'ends' of phospholipid molecules have very
different characteristics: one end is polar (or hydrophilic) and
one (the hydrocarbon tails below) is non-polar (or
hydrophobic):
Dr Alamzeb Khan 11
12. The lipid layer in the
middle of the membrane
is impermeable to the
usual water-soluble
substances, such as ions,
glucose , and urea
fat-soluble substances,
such as oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and alcohol, can
penetrate this portion of
the membrane with ease.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 12
13. Cholesterol molecules
are dissolved in the The cholesterol
bilayer of the
membrane.
determine the degree
of permeability (or
impermeability) of the
bilayer to water-
soluble constituents.
Cholesterol controls
much of the fluidity
of the membrane as
Dr Alamzeb Khan 13
14. Cell Membrane Proteins.
Proteins are globular masses
floating in the lipid bilayer.
most of which are glycoproteins.
Two types of proteins occur:
integral proteins that protrude
all the way through the
membrane,
peripheral proteins that are
attached only to one surface
of the membrane and do not
penetrate all the way through.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 14
15. Membrane Carbohydrates
Membrane carbohydrates
occur in combination with
proteins or lipids in the
form of glycoproteins or
glycolipids.
most of the integral proteins
are glycoproteins, and about
one tenth of the membrane
lipid molecules are
glycolipids.
The "glyco" portions of
these molecules almost
invariably protrude to the
outside of the cell.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 15
16. Many other
carbohydrate
compounds, called
proteoglycans-which are
mainly carbohydrate
substances bound to
small protein cores-are
loosely attached to the
outer surface of the cell
as well. Thus, the entire
outside surface of the cell
often has a loose
carbohydrate coat called
the glycocalyx.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 16
17. Functions of membrane include:
supporting and retaining the cytoplasm
being a selective barrier
The cell is separated from its environment and needs to get
nutrients in and waste products out.
Some molecules can cross the membrane without assistance,
most cannot.
Water, non-polar molecules and some small polar molecules
can cross.
Non-polar molecules penetrate by actually dissolving into the
lipid bilayer.
Most polar compounds such as amino acids, organic acids
and inorganic salts are not allowed entry, but instead must be
specifically transported across the membrane by proteins.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 17
18. Many of the proteins in
the membrane function Transport
to help carry out
selective transport.
These proteins typically
span the whole
membrane, making
contact with the outside
environment and the
cytoplasm. They often
require the expenditure
of energy to help
compounds move across
the membrane
Dr Alamzeb Khan 18
19. Cytoplasm and organelles
Cytoplasm consists of a
gelatinous solution and
contains
microtubules (which serve as
a cell's cytoskeleton)
organelles (literally 'little
organs')
Without one of the
organelles, the mitochondria,
more than 95 per cent of the
cell's energy release from
nutrients would cease
immediately.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 19
20. Organelles
Dispersed in the cytoplasm are five
especially important organelles:
the endoplasmic reticulum,
the Golgi apparatus,
mitochondria, lysosomes, and
peroxisomes.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 20
21. Endoplasmic Reticulum
a network of
tubular and flat
vesicular structures
in the cytoplasm;
The tubules and
vesicles
interconnect with
one another.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 21
22. The space inside the
tubules and vesicles is
filled with endoplasmic
matrix, a watery
medium that is different
from the fluid in the
cytosol outside the
endoplasmic reticulum.
Electron micrographs
show that the space
inside the endoplasmic
reticulum is connected
with the space between
the two membrane
surfaces of the nuclear
membrane.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 22
23. Substances formed in some parts of the cell
enter the space of the endoplasmic reticulum
and are then conducted to other parts of the cell.
Also, the vast surface area of this reticulum and
the multiple enzyme systems attached to its
membranes provide machinery for a major share
of the metabolic functions of the cell.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 23
24. Ribosomes and the Granular Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Attached to the outer
surfaces of many parts of
the endoplasmic reticulum
are large numbers of
minute granular particles
called ribosomes.
Where these are present,
the reticulum is called the
granular endoplasmic reticulum.
The ribosomes are
composed of a mixture of
RNA and proteins, and
they function to synthesize
new protein molecules inAlamzeb Khan
Dr 24
25. Agranular Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Part of the endoplasmic
reticulum has no attached
ribosomes. This part is called
the agranular, or smooth,
endoplasmic reticulum.
The agranular reticulum
functions for the synthesis of
lipid substances and for other
processes of the cells
promoted by intrareticular
enzymes.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 25
26. The Golgi apparatusis
closely related to the Golgi Apparatus
endoplasmic reticulum. It
has membranes similar
to those of the agranular
endoplasmic reticulum. It
usually is composed of
four or more stacked
layers of thin, flat,
enclosed vesicles lying
near one side of the
nucleus. This apparatus
is prominent in secretory
cells, where it is located
on the side of the cell
from which the secretory
substances are extruded.Alamzeb Khan
Dr 26
27. small "transport vesicles"
(also called endoplasmic
reticulum vesicles, or ER
vesicles) continually pinch off
from the endoplasmic
reticulum and shortly
thereafter fuse with the
Golgi apparatus.
In this way, substances
entrapped in the ER vesicles
are transported from the
endoplasmic reticulum to
the Golgi apparatus.
The transported substances
are then processed in the
Golgi apparatus to form
lysosomes,
Dr Alamzeb Khan 27
28. Lysosome
Lysosomes, are vesicular
organelles that form by
s
breaking off from the Golgi
apparatus and then dispersing
throughout the cytoplasm.
The lysosomes provide an
intracellular digestive system that
allows the cell to digest (1)
damaged cellular structures, (2)
food particles that have been
ingested by the cell, and (3)
unwanted matter such as
bacteria.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 28
29. Peroxisomes Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes Peroxisomes are similar physically
to lysosomes, but they are different in two
important ways.
First, they are formed by self-replication
Second, they contain oxidases rather than
hydrolases. capable of combining oxygen with
hydrogen ions to form hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2). a highly oxidizing substance
Dr Alamzeb Khan 29
30. Secretory Vesicles
Almost all such secretory substances are formed by the
endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi apparatus system and are
then released from the Golgi apparatus into the
cytoplasm in the form of storage vesicles called secretory
vesicles or secretory granules. these vesicles store protein
proenzymes
Dr Alamzeb Khan 30
31. Mitochondria
The mitochondria, are called
the "powerhouses" of the
cell. Without them, cells
would be unable to extract
enough energy from the
nutrients, and essentially all
cellular functions would
cease.
Mitochondria are present in
all areas of each cell's
cytoplasm, but the total
number per cell varies from
less than a hundred up to
several thousand
Dr Alamzeb Khan 31
32. The basic structure of the mitochondrion
composed mainly of two lipid bilayer-protein
membranes: an outer membrane and an inner
membrane.
Many infoldings of the inner membrane form
shelves onto which oxidative enzymes are
attached.
In addition, the inner cavity of the
mitochondrion is filled with a matrix that
contains large quantities of dissolved enzymes
that are necessary for extracting energy from
nutrients.
These enzymes operate in association with the
oxidative enzymes on the shelves to cause
oxidation of the nutrients, thereby forming
carbon dioxide and water and at the same time
releasing energy.
The liberated energy is used to synthesize a
"high-energy" substance called adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). ATP is then transported out
of the mitochondrion, and it diffuses
throughout the cell to release its own energy
wherever it is needed for performing cellular
functions
Dr Alamzeb Khan 32
33. Filament and Tubular Structures of the Cell
The fibrillar proteins of the cell are usually organized into filaments or
tubules. These originate as precursor protein molecules synthesized by
ribosomes in the cytoplasm. The precursor molecules then polymerize to
form filaments. As an example, large numbers of actin filaments frequently
occur in the outer zone of the cytoplasm, called the ectoplasm, to form an
elastic support for the cell membrane.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 33
34. Nucleus
The nucleus is the
control center of the cell.
contains large quantities
of DNA,
Dr Alamzeb Khan 34
35. Nuclear Membrane
The nuclear membrane, also
called the nuclear envelope, is
actually two separate bilayer
membranes, one inside the
other. The outer membrane
is continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum of the
cell cytoplasm, and the space
between the two nuclear
membranes is also
continuous with the space
inside the endoplasmic
reticulum
Dr Alamzeb Khan 35
36. The nuclear membrane is penetrated by
several thousand nuclear pores. Large
complexes of protein molecules are
attached at the edges of the pores so
that the central area of each pore is
only about 9 nanometers in
diameter. Even this size is large
enough to allow molecules up to
44,000 molecular weight to pass
through with reasonable ease.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 36
37. Nucleoli
The nuclei of most cells contain one or
more highly staining structures called
nucleoli. The nucleolus, it is simply an
accumulation of large amounts of
RNA and proteins of the types found
in ribosomes.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 37
40. Extracellular Fluid-The "Internal
Environment"
About 60 per cent of the adult human body is fluid,
mainly a water solution of ions and other substances.
Most of this fluid is inside the cells and is called
intracellular fluid.
One third is in the spaces outside the cells and is called
extracellular fluid.
All cells live in essentially the same environment-the
extracellular fluid. For this reason, the extracellular fluid
is also called the internal environment of the body, or the
milieu intérieur,
Dr Alamzeb Khan 40
42. Homeostasis
Maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal
environment
lungs provide oxygen to the extracellular fluid to
replenish the oxygen used by the cells,
kidneys maintain constant ion concentrations,
Gastrointestinal system provides nutrients.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 42
43. Physical Structure of the Cell
Cell contains highly organized physical
structures, called intracellular organelles.
Without one of the organelles, the mitochondria,
more than 95 per cent of the cell's energy release
from nutrients would cease immediately.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 43
45. Membranous Structures of the Cell
Most organelles of the cell
are covered by membranes
composed primarily of lipids
and proteins. These
membranes include the cell
membrane, nuclear membrane,
membrane of the endoplasmic
reticulum, and membranes of the
mitochondria, lysosomes, and
Golgi apparatus.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 45
46. Cell Membrane
The cell membrane (also called the plasma
membrane), which envelops the cell, is a thin,
pliable, elastic structure only 7.5 to 10
nanometers thick. It is composed almost entirely
of proteins and lipids. The approximate
composition is proteins, 55 per cent;
phospholipids, 25 per cent; cholesterol, 13 per
cent; other lipids, 4 per cent; and carbohydrates,
3 per cent.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 46
47. Its basic structure is a lipid bilayer,
which is a thin, double-layered
film of lipids-each layer only one Lipid
molecule thick-that is continuous
over the entire cell surface.
Interspersed in this lipid film are
large globular protein molecules.
The basic lipid bilayer is
composed of phospholipid
molecules. One end of each
phospholipid molecule is soluble
in water; that is, it is hydrophilic.
The other end is soluble only in
fats; that is, it is hydrophobic. The
phosphate end of the
phospholipid is hydrophilic, and
the fatty acid portion is
hydrophobic.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 47
48. Because the hydrophobic
portions of the phospholipid
molecules are repelled by water
but are mutually attracted to one
another, they have a natural
tendency to attach to one
another in the middle of the
membrane,
The hydrophilic phosphate
portions then constitute the two
surfaces of the complete cell
membrane, in contact with
intracellular water on the inside of
the membrane and extracellular
water on the outside surface
Dr Alamzeb Khan 48
49. The lipid layer in the middle
of the membrane is
impermeable to the usual
water-soluble substances,
such as ions, glucose , and
urea
fat-soluble substances, such
as oxygen, carbon dioxide,
and alcohol, can penetrate
this portion of the membrane
with ease.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 49
50. The cholesterol
cholesterol molecules are
dissolved in the bilayer of the
membrane.
determine the degree of
permeability (or
impermeability) of the bilayer
to water-soluble constituents.
Cholesterol controls much of
the fluidity of the membrane
as well.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 50
51. Many of the integral proteins provide structural
channels (or pores) through which water molecules
and water-soluble substances, especially ions,
can diffuse between the extracellular and
intracellular fluids. These protein channels also
have selective properties that allow preferential
diffusion of some substances over others.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 51
52. Other integral proteins act as carrier proteins for
transporting substances that otherwise could not
penetrate the lipid bilayer. Sometimes these even
transport substances in the direction opposite to
their natural direction of diffusion, which is
called "active transport." Still others act as
enzymes.
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53. Integral membrane proteins
serve as receptors for water-
soluble chemicals, such as
peptide hormones, that do
not easily penetrate the cell
membrane.
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54. Membrane Carbohydrates
Membrane carbohydrates occur in
combination with proteins or lipids in
the form of glycoproteins or glycolipids.
most of the integral proteins are
glycoproteins, and about one tenth of
the membrane lipid molecules are
glycolipids.
The "glyco" portions of these molecules
almost invariably protrude to the
outside of the cell. Many other
carbohydrate compounds, called
proteoglycans-which are mainly
carbohydrate substances bound to small
protein cores-are loosely attached to the
outer surface of the cell as well. Thus,
the entire outside surface of the cell
often has a loose carbohydrate coat
called the glycocalyx.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 54
55. The carbohydrate moieties attached to the outer surface of the
cell have several important functions: (1) Many of them have a
negative electrical charge, which gives most cells an overall
negative surface charge that repels other negative objects. (2) The
glycocalyx of some cells attaches to the glycocalyx of other cells,
thus attaching cells to one another. (3) Many of the
carbohydrates act as receptor substances for binding hormones, such
as insulin; when bound, this combination activates attached
internal proteins that, in turn, activate a cascade of intracellular
enzymes. (4) Some carbohydrate moieties enter into immune
reactions
Dr Alamzeb Khan 55
56. Cytoplasm and Its Organelles
The cytoplasm is filled with
both minute and large
dispersed particles and
organelles.
The clear fluid portion of the
cytoplasm in which the
particles are dispersed is
called cytosol; this contains
mainly dissolved proteins,
electrolytes, and glucose .
Dr Alamzeb Khan 56
58. Endoplasmic Reticulum
a network of tubular and flat
vesicular structures in the
cytoplasm;
The tubules and vesicles
interconnect with one
another.
their walls are constructed of
lipid bilayer membranes that
contain large amounts of
proteins, similar to the cell
membrane.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 58
59. The space inside the tubules
and vesicles is filled with
endoplasmic matrix, a watery
medium that is different
from the fluid in the cytosol
outside the endoplasmic
reticulum. Electron
micrographs show that the
space inside the endoplasmic
reticulum is connected with
the space between the two
membrane surfaces of the
nuclear membrane.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 59
60. Substances formed in some parts of the cell
enter the space of the endoplasmic reticulum
and are then conducted to other parts of the cell.
Also, the vast surface area of this reticulum and
the multiple enzyme systems attached to its
membranes provide machinery for a major share
of the metabolic functions of the cell.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 60
61. Ribosomes and the Granular
Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Attached to the outer surfaces of
many parts of the endoplasmic
reticulum are large numbers of
minute granular particles called
ribosomes.
Where these are present, the
reticulum is called the granular
endoplasmic reticulum. The ribosomes
are composed of a mixture of
RNA and proteins, and they
function to synthesize new protein
molecules in the cell
Dr Alamzeb Khan 61
62. Agranular Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Part of the endoplasmic
reticulum has no attached
ribosomes. This part is called
the agranular, or smooth,
endoplasmic reticulum.
The agranular reticulum
functions for the synthesis of
lipid substances and for other
processes of the cells
promoted by intrareticular
enzymes.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 62
63. Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatusis closely
related to the endoplasmic
reticulum. It has membranes
similar to those of the agranular
endoplasmic reticulum. It usually is
composed of four or more stacked
layers of thin, flat, enclosed vesicles
lying near one side of the nucleus.
This apparatus is prominent in
secretory cells, where it is located
on the side of the cell from which
the secretory substances are
extruded.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 63
64. small "transport vesicles" (also
called endoplasmic reticulum
vesicles, or ER vesicles) continually
pinch off from the endoplasmic
reticulum and shortly thereafter
fuse with the Golgi apparatus. In
this way, substances entrapped in
the ER vesicles are transported
from the endoplasmic reticulum to
the Golgi apparatus. The
transported substances are then
processed in the Golgi apparatus to
form lysosomes, secretory vesicles,
and other cytoplasmic components
Dr Alamzeb Khan 64
65. Lysosomes, are vesicular organelles that form by
breaking off from the Golgi apparatus and then
dispersing throughout the cytoplasm. Lysosome
The lysosomes provide an intracellular digestive
system that allows the cell to digest (1) damaged
cellular structures, (2) food particles that have
s
been ingested by the cell, and (3) unwanted
matter such as bacteria. The lysosome is quite
different in different types of cells, but it is
usually 250 to 750 nanometers in diameter. It is
surrounded by a typical lipid bilayer membrane
and is filled with large numbers of small granules
5 to 8 nanometers in diameter, which are protein
aggregates of as many as 40 different hydrolase
(digestive) enzymes. A hydrolytic enzyme is capable
of splitting an organic compound into two or
more parts by combining hydrogen from a water
molecule with one part of the compound and
combining the hydroxyl portion of the water
molecule with the other part of the compound.
For instance, protein is hydrolyzed to form
amino acids , glycogen is hydrolyzed to form
glucose , and lipids are hydrolyzed to form fatty
acids and glycerol.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 65
66. Peroxisomes Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes Peroxisomes are similar physically to lysosomes,
but they are different in two important ways. First, they are
believed to be formed by self-replication (or perhaps by budding
off from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum) rather than from
the Golgi apparatus. Second, they contain oxidases rather than
hydrolases. Several of the oxidases are capable of combining
oxygen with hydrogen ions derived from different intracellular
chemicals to form hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Hydrogen
peroxide is a highly oxidizing substance and is used in
association with catalase, another oxidase enzyme present in large
quantities in peroxisomes, to oxidize many substances that might
otherwise be poisonous to the cell. For instance, about half the
alcohol a person drinks is detoxified by the peroxisomes of the
liver cells in this manner
Dr Alamzeb Khan 66
67. Secretory Vesicles
. Almost all such secretory substances are formed by
the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi apparatus system and
are then released from the Golgi apparatus into the
cytoplasm in the form of storage vesicles called secretory
vesicles or secretory granules. these vesicles store protein
proenzymes
Dr Alamzeb Khan 67
68. Mitochondria
The mitochondria, are called
the "powerhouses" of the
cell. Without them, cells
would be unable to extract
enough energy from the
nutrients, and essentially all
cellular functions would
cease.
Mitochondria are present in
all areas of each cell's
cytoplasm, but the total
number per cell varies from
less than a hundred up to
several thousand
Dr Alamzeb Khan 68
69. The basic structure of the mitochondrion
composed mainly of two lipid bilayer-protein
membranes: an outer membrane and an inner
membrane.
Many infoldings of the inner membrane form
shelves onto which oxidative enzymes are
attached.
In addition, the inner cavity of the
mitochondrion is filled with a matrix that
contains large quantities of dissolved enzymes
that are necessary for extracting energy from
nutrients.
These enzymes operate in association with the
oxidative enzymes on the shelves to cause
oxidation of the nutrients, thereby forming
carbon dioxide and water and at the same time
releasing energy.
The liberated energy is used to synthesize a
"high-energy" substance called adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). ATP is then transported out
of the mitochondrion, and it diffuses
throughout the cell to release its own energy
wherever it is needed for performing cellular
functions
Dr Alamzeb Khan 69
70. Filament and Tubular Structures of the Cell
The fibrillar proteins of the cell are usually organized into filaments or
tubules. These originate as precursor protein molecules synthesized by
ribosomes in the cytoplasm. The precursor molecules then polymerize to
form filaments. As an example, large numbers of actin filaments frequently
occur in the outer zone of the cytoplasm, called the ectoplasm, to form an
elastic support for the cell membrane.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 70
71. Nucleus
The nucleus is the control center
of the cell. contains large
quantities of DNA, which are the
genes. The genes determine the
characteristics of the cell's
proteins, including the structural
proteins, as well as the
intracellular enzymes that control
cytoplasmic and nuclear
activities.
The genes also control and
promote reproduction of the cell
itself.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 71
72. Nuclear Membrane
The nuclear membrane, also
called the nuclear envelope, is
actually two separate bilayer
membranes, one inside the
other. The outer membrane
is continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum of the
cell cytoplasm, and the space
between the two nuclear
membranes is also
continuous with the space
inside the endoplasmic
reticulum
Dr Alamzeb Khan 72
73. The nuclear membrane is penetrated by
several thousand nuclear pores. Large
complexes of protein molecules are
attached at the edges of the pores so
that the central area of each pore is
only about 9 nanometers in
diameter. Even this size is large
enough to allow molecules up to
44,000 molecular weight to pass
through with reasonable ease.
Dr Alamzeb Khan 73
74. Nucleoli and Formation of Ribosomes The nuclei of
most cells contain one or more highly staining
structures called nucleoli. The nucleolus, unlike most
other organelles discussed here, does not have a
limiting membrane. Instead, it is simply an
accumulation of large amounts of RNA and proteins of
the types found in ribosomes. The nucleolus becomes
considerably enlarged when the cell is actively
synthesizing proteins. Formation of the nucleoli (and of
the ribosomes in the cytoplasm outside the nucleus)
begins in the nucleus. First, specific DNA genes in the
chromosomes cause RNA to be synthesized. Some of
this is stored in the nucleoli, but most of it is
transported outward through the nuclear pores into
cytoplasm. Here, it is used in conjunction with specific
proteins to assemble "mature" ribosomes that play an
essential role in forming cytoplasmic proteins
Dr Alamzeb Khan 74