Ion channels, types and their importace in managment of diseasesFarazaJaved
This topic covers voltage gated type of ion channel, general structure and functioning of ion channels and involvement of different ion channel types in the pathogenesis as wella as a target for the development of various diseases.
Cell signaling / Signal Transduction / Transmembrane signaling.
It is the process by which cells communicate with their environment and respond to external stimuli.
When a signaling molecule(ligand) binds to its receptor, it alters the shape or activity of the receptor, triggering a change inside of the cell such as alteration in the activity of a gene / cell division. Thus the original Intercellular Signal is converted into an Intracellular Signal that triggers as a response.
Ion channels, types and their importace in managment of diseasesFarazaJaved
This topic covers voltage gated type of ion channel, general structure and functioning of ion channels and involvement of different ion channel types in the pathogenesis as wella as a target for the development of various diseases.
Cell signaling / Signal Transduction / Transmembrane signaling.
It is the process by which cells communicate with their environment and respond to external stimuli.
When a signaling molecule(ligand) binds to its receptor, it alters the shape or activity of the receptor, triggering a change inside of the cell such as alteration in the activity of a gene / cell division. Thus the original Intercellular Signal is converted into an Intracellular Signal that triggers as a response.
Autoclave, types of autoclave, horizontal autoclave, vertical autoclave, vacuum type autoclave, pressure cooker type autoclave. their purpose, precaution, etc....
Cells of multicellular organisms detect and respond to countless internal and extracellular signals that control their growth, division, and differentiation during development, as well as their behavior in adult tissues.
At the heart of all these communication systems are regulatory proteins that produce chemical signals, which are sent from one place to another in the body or within a cell, usually being processed along the way and integrated with other signals to provide clear and effective communication.
Study of cell signaling has traditionally focused on the mechanisms by which eukaryotic cells communicate with each other using extracellular signal molecules such as hormones and growth factors.
Many bacteria, respond to chemical signals that are secreted by their neighbors and accumulate at higher population density. This process, called quorum sensing, allows bacteria to coordinate their behavior, including their motility, antibiotic production, spore formation, and sexual conjugation.
Communication between cells in multicellular organisms is mediated mainly by extracellular signal molecules.
Most cells in multicellular organisms both emit and receive signals. Reception of the signals depends on receptor proteins, usually (but not always) at the cell surface, which bind the signal molecule. The binding activates the receptor, which in turn activates one or more intracellular signaling pathways or systems.
These systems depend on intracellular signaling proteins, which process the signal inside the receiving cell and distribute it to the appropriate intracellular targets.
The targets that lie at the end of signaling pathways are generally called effector proteins, which are altered in some way by the incoming signal and implement the appropriate change in cell behavior.
Depending on the signal and the type and state of the receiving cell, these effectors can be transcription regulators, ion channels, components of a metabolic pathway, or parts of the cytoskeleton.
Cell signaling is the process where cell communicate with each other with the help of signaling molecules and receptors. Cell signaling is done by different types of signaling processes such as autocrine, paracrine, synaptic, endocrine, contact dependent signaling
Cell Signaling is a phenomenon in which cells receive and respond to the signals or chemical messages from their internal environment or from the neighbouring cells.
Molecular interaction, Regulation and Signalling receptors and vesiclesAnantha Kumar
1. Overview of Extracellular signalling
2. Signalling molecules operate over various distance in animals
3.Endocrine Signalling
4.Paracrine Signalling
5.Autocrine Signalling
6. Signalling by Plasma membrane attached proteins
7.Receptors
8 Properties of receptors
9.Cell surface receptors belong to four major classes
10.Signal transduction Mechanism
11. Second messenger
12. Contraction of skeletal Muscle cells mechanism
In biology, cell signaling is part of any communication process that governs basic activities of cells and coordinates multiple-cell actions. The ability of cells to perceive and correctly respond to their microenvironment is the basis of development, tissue repair, and immunity, as well as normal tissue homeostasis.
Cell signaling is the fundamental process that lets a cell communicate, grow & respond to its surroundings.
This presentation might hep you to understand the various mechanisms that a cell employs to perform the very vital activity for its survival.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
2. To make multicellular organisms cell must communicate. This
communication is mediated by extracellular signal molecules.
Sofisticated mechanisms control which signal molecules are
released from a specific type of cell, at what time and concentration
they are secreted, and how these signals are interpreted by the
target cells
Some signalling molecules act over long distances, some act only on
the immediate neighbour cells
Most cells in higher organisms are both emiters and receivers of
signals
3. Lecture 1: General Principles of Cell Signalling
• Signals, receptors and mediators
• The prototypical pheromone signalling pathway of
budding yeast
• Cell surface and intracellular receptors
• Types of intercellular signalling
• Nuclear receptor signalling
• Types of cell surface receptors
• Molecular switches: signalling through GTPases and
protein phosphorylation
Lecture 2: Discovery and elucidation of novel signalling
pathways: a case study
4. Budding yeast cells responding to mating factor.
(A)The cells are normally spherical.
(B)In response to mating factor secreted by neighbouring
yeast cells, they put out a protrusion toward the source of
the factor in preparation for mating.
5. The binding of extracellular signal
molecules to either cell-surface receptors
or intracellular receptors.
Most signal molecules are hydrophilic and
are therefore unable to cross the plasma
membrane directly; instead, they bind to
cell-surface receptors, which in turn
generate one or more signals inside the
target cell.
Some small signal molecules, by contrast,
diffuse across the plasma membrane and
bind to receptors inside the target cell
either in the cytosol or in the nucleus (as
shown here). Many of these small signal
molecules are hydrophobic and nearly
insoluble in aqueous solutions; they are
therefore transported in the bloodstream
and other extracellular fluids after binding
to carrier proteins, from which they
dissociate before entering the target cell.
6. Forms of intercellular signaling.
(A) Contact-dependent signaling requires cells to be in direct membrane-membrane
contact.
(B) Paracrine signaling depends on signals that are released into the extracellular space
and act locally on neighboring cells.
(C) Synaptic signaling is performed by neurons that transmit signals electrically along
their axons and release neurotransmitters at synapses, which are often located far
away from the cell body.
(D) Endocrine signaling depends on endocrine cells, which secrete hormones into the
bloodstream that are then distributed widely throughout the body. Many of the same
types of signaling molecules are used in paracrine, synaptic, and endocrine signaling;
the crucial differences lie in the speed and selectivity with which the signals are
delivered to their targets.
7.
8. The contrast between endocrine and synaptic
signaling. In complex animals, endocrine cells and
nerve cells work together to coordinate the diverse
activities of the billions of cells. Whereas different
endocrine cells must use different hormones to
communicate specifically with their target cells,
different nerve cells can use the same neurotransmitter
and still communicate in a highly specific manner.
(A) Endocrine cells secrete hormones into the blood,
which signal only the specific target cells that
recognize them. These target cells have receptors for
binding a specific hormone, which the cells “pull” from
the extracellular fluid.
(B) In synaptic signaling, by contrast, specificity arises
from the synaptic contacts between a nerve cell and
the specific target cells it signals. Usually, only a target
cell that is in synaptic communication with a nerve cell
is exposed to the neurotransmitter released from the
nerve terminal (although some neurotransmitters act
in a paracrine mode, serving as local mediators that
influence multiple target cells in the area).
9. An animal cell's dependence on multiple extracellular signals. Each cell type displays a
set of receptors that enables it to respond to a corresponding set of signal molecules
produced by other cells. These signal molecules work in combinations to regulate the
behaviour of the cell. As shown here, an individual cell requires multiple signals to
survive (blue arrows) and additional signals to divide (red arrow) or differentiate
(green arrows). If deprived of appropriate survival signals, a cell will undergo a form of
cell suicide known as programmed cell death, or apoptosis.
10. The nuclear receptor superfamily. All nuclear
hormone receptors bind to DNA as either
homodimers or heterodimers, but for
simplicity we show them as monomers here.
(A) The receptors all have a related structure.
The short DNA-binding domain in each
receptor is shown in green. (B) A receptor
protein in its inactive state is bound to
inhibitory proteins. Domain-swap
experiments suggest that many of the ligand-binding,
transcription-activating, and DNA-binding
domains in these receptors can
function as interchangeable modules. (C) The
binding of ligand to the receptor causes the
ligand-binding domain of the receptor to
clamp shut around the ligand, the inhibitory
proteins to dissociate, and coactivator
proteins to bind to the receptor's
transcription-activating domain, thereby
increasing gene transcription. (D) The three-dimensional
structure of a ligand-binding
domain with (right) and without (left) ligand
bound. Note that the blue α helix acts as a lid
that snaps shut when the ligand (shown in
red) binds, trapping the ligand in place.
11. Responses induced by the activation of a nuclear hormone receptor. (A) Early primary
response and (B) delayed secondary response. The figure shows the responses to a steroid
hormone, but the same principles apply for all ligands that activate this family of receptor
proteins. Some of the primary-response proteins turn on secondary-response genes, whereas
others turn off the primary-response genes. The actual number of primary- and secondary-response
genes is greater than shown. As expected, drugs that inhibit protein synthesis
suppress the transcription of secondary-response genes but not primary-response genes,
allowing these two classes of gene transcription responses to be readily distinguished.
12. Three classes of cell-surface
receptors.
(A) Ion-channel-linked
receptors
(B) G-protein-linked receptors
(C) enzyme-linked receptors
Although many enzyme-linked
receptors have intrinsic
enzyme activity, as shown on
the left, many others rely on
associated enzymes
13. Different kinds of intracellular signaling
proteins along a signaling pathway from
a cell-surface receptor to the nucleus.
In this example, a series of signaling
proteins and small intracellular
mediators relay the extracellular signal
into the cell, causing a change in gene
expression.
The signal is amplified, altered
(transduced), and distributed en route.
Many of the steps can be modulated by
other extracellular and intracellular
signals, so that the final result of one
signal depends on other factors
affecting the cell.
Ultimately, the signaling pathway
activates (or inactivates) target proteins
that alter cell behavior. In this example,
the target is a gene regulatory protein.
14. Two types of intracellular signaling proteins that act as molecular switches. In both cases, a
signaling protein is activated by the addition of a phosphate group and inactivated by the
removal of the phosphate. (A) The phosphate is added covalently to the signaling protein
by a protein kinase. (B) A signaling protein is induced to exchange its bound GDP for GTP.
To emphasize the similarity in the two mechanisms, ATP is shown as APPP, ADP as APP,
GTP as GPPP, and GDP as GPP.
15. Extracellular signals A and B both
activate a different series of protein
phosphorylations, each of which
leads to the phosphorylation of
protein Y but at different sites on the
protein. Protein Y is activated only
when both of these sites are
phosphorylated, and therefore it
becomes active only when signals A
and B are simultaneously present. For
this reason, integrator proteins are
sometimes called coincidence
detectors.
Signal integration
24. Cyclic AMP is synthesized by
the adenylyl cyclase from
ATP. It is a cyclization
reaction that removes two
phosphates as
pyrophosphate.
Cyclic AMP is short-lived. It is
rapidly hydrolyzed by
phosphodiesterases to give
5’-AMP as shown on the
figure.
The pyrophosphate is
hydrolyzed to inorganic
phosphates. This reaction is
the thermodynamic driver
for the synthesis of cAMP.
25. A cultured nerve cell responding to the neurotransmiter serotonin. Serotonin acts
through a GPCR and activates cAMP synthesis. The cells express a fluorescent proteins
that changes its fluorescence upon binding of cAMP. Blue indicate low concentration of
cAMP, yellow – intermediate and, red a high concentration of cAMP.