This document discusses three techniques for comparing cases: case studies, focused comparison, and statistical analysis. It provides examples of different types of case studies, including single case studies, multiple case studies, and how single case studies can be comparative. It also discusses the advantages of the most similar and most different approaches for focused comparison of a small number of cases. Finally, it outlines how statistical analysis permits exploration of covariation between variables through measuring them quantitatively and identifying dependent and independent variables.

1. How to compare
Week 5,
Sem 1, 2015/2016
ROHANA ABDUL HAMID

2. TECHNIQUES
• 1. CASE STUDIES
• 2. FOCUSED COMPARISON
• 3. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

3. 1. Case studies
What is a case study ?
Intensive scrutiny of one case
Micro level and macro level analysis : the selection of
cases. Thus, it is a case oriented , not variable oriented.
Thick description. Multi-method : reading academic lit,
secondary documents, primary materials, interviews
What are cases ?
Individuals, organisations, processes, programs,
institutions, events
RQ : How and why questions:

4. Examples of case studies
• 1) Graham Allison’s study of a single case
(1971) about 1962 Cuban Missile Crises. He
explained the crises by using three competing
theories – U.S and Soviet Union performed as
a) rationale actors, b) complex bureaucracies
and c) politically motivated groups or persons.
• Single case study

5. Examples
2) A book about major strategies for improving
social conditions by illustrating four policy topics :
welfare reform, strengthening the child
education, education reform and transforming
neighborhoods. The book refers to specific cases
of successful programs.
• Results : The writer develops generalization
based on the case studies of the need for the
successful programs to be results oriented
• Multiple case cross analysis

6. Example [case studies with multiple cases]
3) A book with 8 social programs . The commonalities
in the program : the effectiveness of the programs
[although many these policy programs often meets
failure].
• However, the programs varied widely in their focus
such as : education, nutrition, drug prevention,
preschool education, delinquent youths, drug
treatment, homelessness, mental health.
• Findings : can identify programs that are low in cost ,
programs that have convincing evidence of long term
effects; enable the government to replicate
the programs

7. Single case study : comparative?
1) Single case study can be subsumed under
comparative method if it is theory-driven.
How ?
a) Theory infirming and theory confirming case
study : analysis of a single case within the
framework of established generalizations.
The case is the test of the proposition , which
in turn may confirmed or infirmed by it.

8. ….
b) Deviant case : studies of single case that are
known to deviate from established
generalizations.
So , why do we select the case ?
We want to uncover relevant variables that are not
considered previously.
What is the theoretical value?
It weakens the original proposition , able to suggest
modified proposition that may be stronger.

9. …..
• C) Representative case : Typical and standard
example of a wider category. It is common, useful
and undramatic.
• A collection of representation of cases
(representative) will provide raw materials for
later distillation/ subsequent generalizations.
Example : Coalition government – choose to study
the phenomena in your country in detail. Home
country is your research site, but you hope that
the results would contribute to broader
comparative understanding. HOW ?

10. Disadvantage of single case study and
who do we do about it ?
• 1) What works in country A may not work in
country B.
• Why ?
Contextual differences. But by drawing
analogies , case studies can encourage the
search for more general knowledge .
Asking question : What differences between
countries explain why the same policy led to
contrasting result ?

11. Other types of case study
4) Prototypical case study = The case is chosen
because it is expected to become so.
Example : US has been used as a prototype case for
democracy. Why ? This is because it is pioneering
in democracy. Thus, when we study the case, it
helps us to understand the phenomenon
occurred elsewhere.
• 5) Archetypical case study = creates the category.
• Example : French Revolution. Refer to French
revolution when you want to look at the study of
revolution.

12. ….
• 6) Critical type of case study : if it works here,
it would work anywhere.
• Example: Imposing democracy in Iraq (case).
Iraq – a country with little experience of
democracy (a case). If democracy survives in
Iraq, it would work anywhere such as Libya,
Syria.

13. 2. FOCUSED COMPARISON
• What is it ?
• A small N studies – concentrate on the intensive
comparison ( of a political phenomenon)
• Choose a study because of the case
• The number of countries – either 2 ( paired ,
binary comparison) or 3 (triangular comparison)
Works well when few countries are compared over
time.

14. How do you select the countries ?
• Apply two approaches : Most similar design
and Most Different Design
Advantage of most similar design : the more
similar units being compared, it is possible to
isolate the factors responsible for differences
between them .
Example : Social security programs in Canada
and USA

15. ….
• Advantage of Most Different design : Can test the
relationship by finding out whether it can be
observed in a range of different countries.
• If it is proven to be positive, our confidence that
the relationship is real (the relationship is not on
the basis of third factors, unmeasured variable)
• Example: If we find that plurality method of
election of is associated with two-party system in
the diverse group of countries, the
robustness(strong, sturdy) in the relationship
would increase.

16. Statistical Analysis
• Variable-based, not country specific.
• Large number of countries/cases. The data are
used for generalisation.
• It permits us to explore covariation between
variables.
• The variables – we can measure quantitatively.
• In statistical analysis, the variables are –
dependent and independent.

17. Example of studies using statistical
analysis :
1. The higher a person’s social status, the greater
his/her participation in politics.
2. The more affluent (wealthy) a country, the more
likely it is to be an established democracy.
• - Correlation : Positive or negative ?
• - Can you identify the dependent and
independent variables?

18. Statistical approach
• Correlation : the association between
variables
Correlation score is zero 0 : zero linear
relationship
Correlation score , 0.5- 1 = strong correlation
Weak correlation = 0.1- 0.4
Graph : page 93-94

19. Risks to SA : 1) Spurious correlation
• When you have strong correlation between two
variables, but the relationship of the variables
(both or one) depend on third factor
(unmeasured variable).
• How ? Consider correlation between income and
political participation. The third unmeasured
variable is likely to be education.
• Thus, we have to consider all variables (relevant)
in our analysis (research)

20. 2. The direction of causation
• Correlation is not able to determine the
direction of causation. For instance ,
• A) x causes / promotes y or;
• B) y causes / promotes x
• Why ? This is because, correlation shows the
association not the direction.