Plato (427-347 BC) was a Greek philosopher who sought to address the injustice of Socrates' execution. In his works Republic, Statesman, and Laws, he explored questions of politics, justice, and the ideal state. Plato believed a just state requires a class structure with rulers governed by reason, guardians motivated by courage, and workers motivated by desires. The rulers' role is to understand the eternal Forms and implement justice by ensuring each class and individual performs the role suited to their nature. Plato's educational system was designed to produce a just state by training the ruling class in mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy to lead according to rational principles.

1.  (427-347 b.c)
 Works:
 Republic
 Statesman
 Laws

2.  A philosopher who
redressed the injustice
that politicians had
visited on his teacher,
Socrates.
◦ Crime of impiety to Gods
and corrupting the youth
of Athens for asking
embarrassing questions
about those in power.

3.  Athens was beaten by its
enemy, Greek city-state
of Sparta in the
Peloponnesian war. (27
years)
 Athens started to lose
faiths in traditional
beliefs, the traditional
customs based on the will
of Gods, especially on
the meaning of justice
 What is justice? New:
◦ Being honest and
giving both men and
the Gods what is due
them.
◦ Helping one’s friends
and hurting enemies
◦ Whatever is in the
interest of the stronger

4.  Their questions:
◦ Why do things change?
Or why do things such
as the old tribal ways
appear to change?
◦ Is there anything does
not change?
 Their methods;
◦ Rejecting the traditional
mythical explanation for
events.
◦ They seek natural
causes, which imply
that human can control
their own lives and
futures if they can
understand nature.

5.  Two groups of new
philosophers
◦ (1)Relativists
 No real truth is certain
 Truth is relative to situation and local
practice
 Public opinion, custom can be used
as basis for truth
 All political beliefs and practices are
merely customary based on changing
history, traditions, and opinions of
society.
 People have different political rules
and institution.
 Justice is neither natural, only
conventional and follows the interest
of the stronger/powerful
 Great ideals of philosophy do not
guide political action; but wealth and
prestige
 (2)Absolutists
 Real truth exists independently
 We must search for it
 Must live according to it
 Dialectic method: to seek truth
through reasoned debate. To get clear
and unvarnished truth

6.  Doctrine of Forms
◦ Explain why things change
◦ Behind changing material is
a reality that is constant.
◦ Consists of eternal forms
which never change
◦ They are invisible,
independent of the material
world, universal
◦ Example: person, desk
◦ Same like: city-states,
justice
 Only the forms that is
truly real….others are only
the appearance of the
form.
 Only the philosophers can
know the forms.
 Forms provide the true
nature.
 Natural is the basis of
reality
 Known through reason
not the sense experiences

9.  Knowledge of the Forms:
◦ Begin with senses and end
independently.
◦ Lowest level: shadow of
things
◦ Second stage: object
appears
◦ Higher level: world of mind
and soul: third stage:
abstraction
◦ Highest level: stage of
cognition, superior intellect.
Stage of reality, only true
philosopher reach it: nature
of good

10.  Capacity of reason:
◦ Lies in the immortal
soul….after the body
dies
◦ Guide to higher
purpose: differentiate
what is good or ideal
justice and evil
◦ Justice: highest goal of
political life, why?
 Justice:
◦ Enables everyone to
fully realize themselves,
to fulfill their true nature
◦ Those who fully know
and understand the
form of true justice
should be elevated
to ,political leadership
in the ideal state.

11.  His major contribution to
political philosophy.
 Proposition: It was
inconceivable that a treatise
on the good life could be
developed outside of the
framework of the state.
 He assumed that there is a
good, that there are truths
which, if discovered and
implemented, will create
and preserve the good life
in the good state.

12.  Politics is an art and that, as
with all arts, its successful
practice demands expert
knowledge.
 The ability to govern depends
upon a knowledge of
principles which must be
apprehended by intelligent men
through rational process.
 Virtue is knowledge: only
few may develop the amount of
virtue required for ruler ship.

13.  His search for the meaning
and content of justice.
 Justice consists of speaking the truth
and paying one ‘s debts.
 Giving to every man his due. Does it
mean doing good to one’s friends and
harm to one’s enemies?
 Doing good for oneself… the interest
of the stronger
 Justice is resulted from fear. Men
enact laws and agree to obey them
because while they are selfish, they
are also prudent.
 These all definitions are too
superficial, and they view it as
something apart from man’s
soul.

14.  How to justify justice as
integral part of soul?
◦ State is the individual “writ
large”. They influence each
other. Order in the soul
foster order in the city, and
disorder in the soul generates
disorder in the city.
◦ An analysis of the nature of
the state will also be an
analysis of human nature.
◦ Involve the construction of a
just state lead to discovery of
justice in individual.
◦ It is the purpose of ideal state:
searching for justice

15.  Three basic forces that
motivate men:
 Forces of desire or appetite
 Spirit or courage
 Reason
 Each is present in every man
in varying amounts, but one is
always predominant.
 Society can be divided into
three classes based on
these amount of forces.
 Any one class will play its role
based on the dominant
motivating force.

16.  Dominant group:
 Motivated by appetite or
desire
 Fewer group:
 will be motivated by spirit
or courage.
 Smallest group:
 Will be motivated by
reasoning

17.  State:
 To fulfill the demand for the
satisfaction of reciprocal
needs.
 Goods are needed for
consumption, certain
essential tasks must be
performed.
 So each person must work
at what he does best and
through association, not
only satisfies his own needs
but also the needs of others
for that service.

18.  The artisan class, the lowest
class’s function is to supply the
material necessities to life.
 Follow the principle of
specialization
 To prevent interference in
other field
 To guarantee the upper
class are not forced to
performed tasks which are
not proper for them.
 Thus any state that exists
merely to gratify the
appetite is no state at all
but only a slightly exalted
pigsty.

19.  Military guardian
class:
 The instinct for courage or
spirit is dominant.
 Specialization is followed

20.  Ruling Class:
 They were endowed with
reason and motivated by their
willingness to serve as rulers.
 They have the greatest
capacity to think
philosophically and to serve
diligently for true principles.
 Their welfare is inextricably
bound up with the welfare of
the people.
 It is a rulership absolutely
devoted to community interest
and completely lacking in the
desire of a ruling class to serve
its own interest at the expense
of the citizentry.

21.  What have the class structure and
specialization to do with justice?
◦ Justice is a product of class division
and specialization of function.
◦ Giving to everyman his due which is
assigned through particular task
which he is best qualified by aptitude
and training to perform.
◦ It has nothing to do with judicial
procedure.
◦ It is a development of internal
harmony both in the individual and in
the state.
◦ State which arranges matters so that
each person is doing precisely what
he ought to be doing is the superior
state.

22.  Virtues of the state:
 Wisdom:
 Found in the ruling class of
philosopher king
 Courage:
 Attribute of soldier-
guardians
 Self-control:
 Exercised by both the
soldiers and guardians and
the artisans when they
recognize their limitations
and not attempt to interfere
with the work of the ruler.
 The rulers do not abuse
their power

23.  Justice
◦ At state level: When all
virtues are made
possible through the
harmonious balance
achieved through
specialization.
◦ .
 At individual level: it
results from
temperance. If
everyone life is made to
serve the community
and the lesser impulses
are strictly curbed. Or
he performed only the
role for which he is
qualified

24.  Criticism:
◦ 1. Can we easily
differentiate human
attribute, aptitude, and
capacities.
◦ 2. Other factors also
important:
experience.
 3. It is intolerable to
exclude some men from
state administration.

25.  The welfare of state
depended upon the
educational training of
its citizens.
 It cannot be run by
private institution.
 It must be
comprehensive.
 It must involve the
women.

26.  Two phases:
◦ Elementary training
 Open to all
 Until 18 years old
 They study gymnastics
and music
 Gymnastic: exercise, diet to
ensure sound physique
 Music: less toward singing
and instrumental music but
to poetry and literature.
 All literature should be
censored to conform to
accepted standard

27.  Advanced level:
 From age of twenty for
fifteen years
 For ten years:
 The study of mathematics:
from the basic to higher
form.
 The study of astronomy
 For five years:
 The Study of dialectic or
philosophy
 Search for “ good”, “truth”

28.  At the age of 35:
◦ Successful candidates will
join civil and military
administrative positions.
◦ Screening process will
continue for 15 years
◦ At the age of 50, those with
real ability reach the
pinnacle of state order.
◦ They join the group of
guardian class
◦ They rule according to their
own intelligence and training
and must not be compelled
to conform to set of
outdated and inferior laws.

29.  It involves the upper
classes.
 It is differ from Marx.
 It has political or
moral value rather
than economics.
 Struggle for property
might lead to danger
in society.
 He proposed the
elimination of
private property.
 However the artisan
would be allowed to
hold private property.

30.  Communism was
possible and
necessary for upper
house.
◦ .
 Why?
◦ To reduce excessive
individualism
◦ To reduce competition
for political power
◦ To avoid distraction to
rulers

31.  Scheme of communism:
◦ Private property
◦ Family relationship in the
upper class
 Marriage is not allowed in the
ruling class
 Breeding was to be regulated so
as to produce offspring from the
best possible stock.
 State was to be maintained at an
optimum size and populated by
the best of the offspring
produced by men and women.
 Abortion, infanticide, and neglect
of the chronically ill are devices
to maintain the size and the
quality of the community.

32.  Women:
◦ Must perform their role
of citizen.
◦ They can share the
military and ruler ship
duties with men.
◦ The upper class women
had the responsibility to
bear children, but not
the responsibility to
care them after birth.

33.  Men needed to return to the
simpler life of the past and
to reject the gluttony,
sensuality, and conviviality
that had caused a
departure from the superior
state.
 Preoccupation with the
satisfaction of appetitive
urges weakened the
citizenry and resulted in the
military and moral collapse.

34.  Less perfect/ideal state: To
differentiate justice and injustice.
 Ideal state may undergo four
progressive stages of
degenerative corruption: From
ideal republic
◦ to timocracy or military rule. Spirit
is the dominating force, not reason.
◦ to oligarchy, dominated by
appetite, ruler loves wealth.
◦ to democracy. Represent the
corruption of oligarchy and results
from the revolution of poor against
the rich. It is anarchy, issuing from
the lust for freedom.
◦ to tyranny

35.  Human: for him are
incapable of governing
himself. They need expert,
government. It will disallow
individual appetite to run
wild.
 Education and communism
are devices employed to
curb the excessive
individualism that disrupts
the state and destructive of
individual morality and
justice.

36.  Criticism:
◦ Concept of individualism
◦ Concept of communism
◦ Concept of private property for ruling class
◦ Concept of family relationship
◦ Concept of democracy
◦ Concept of human freedom

37.  Its represent an attitude
toward democracy which
was differ from the
Republic.
 The good statesman should
be an expert. He knows
how to rule, and his
capacities constitute his
right.
 The task of the ruler is to
develop a virtuous people.
 Law is inferior to
knowledge.

38.  Law and governmental problems in the real
world:
◦ The law is now considered necessity, though it may be
imperfect (contains element of foolishness and wisdom)
◦ it has value- it promote stability and security.
◦ It prevent further degeneration.
 This lead to his new classification of states:

40.  He proposed that law shall be substituted for the
philosopher-king.
 In the perfect state reason rules; in the best
practicable state law rules.
 Law and reason are not identical. But since law
derives from reason, it is substantially sound.

41.  Laws holds together the
vast and complicated
fabric of civilized life.
 Laws is a force that holds
man to a sane and
predictable course.
 Laws is sovereign rather
than men who are selfish
 Laws must be for the
whole people and in the
interest of the stability of
society

42.  He started favouring for a moderation and self-
control rather than division of classes to establish
desired unity and harmony of community.
 What kind of states that can develop those
qualities in the people?
◦ Mixed constitution through a balance of oligarchical and
democtratic principles.
 Involves popular control
 Involves principle of consent

43.  The Model State of the Laws:
◦ It should be located inland and far enough from the sea to
prevent naval militarism and to discourage commercialism.
◦ Naval military power may corrupt the nation that relied upon
it.
◦ Commercialism may encourage more people whose concern
are profit rather than civic duties in city .
◦ The community should be agricultural and self-
supporting.
◦ Agriculture unlike commerce, can hardly produce great wealth
that can diverts minds and energies of the citizens from civic
duties.

44.  The Model state:
◦ People should not be so poor.
◦ Not only thinking about money.
◦ Number of citizens should be set at 5,040. ( can be
divided by every number up to 10 and 12)
◦ States to be divided into 12 tribes and governed by State
Council consisting of 12 committees.
◦ Should has its currency system, weights and measures,
based on numerical system.

45.  Property in the Laws
◦ State is divided into 5,040 equal lots, one for each citizen.
◦ However, citizen are warned to bear in mind the social
purpose of the property.
◦ They cannot be transferred except through inheritance.
◦ It cannot be divided.
◦ Thus the number of citizen must always constant.
◦ If he has no heir, should assign ownership to the son of
another.
◦ If the population increase beyond the desired point, birth
control or colonization may be used to reduce them.

46.  The property
◦ If citizen reduce, use incentives or penalties.
◦ Only land should be equalized.
◦ Other property is not so equalized, but state should has
substantial control over them.
◦ Each should has property up to 4 times the value of his
land. (regulated inequality).
◦ This will determine the exercise of political power.
Participation will be based on 4 classes of society:
determined by the ownership of property.

47.  Property
◦ Classes: 1 percent, 2 percent, 3 percent, 4 percent.
◦ They will determined their political power.
◦ If the wealth gained exceed the four times value, it must
be returned to the state.
◦ Commercial activities should be handled by aliens, who will
be carefully regulated.
◦ No citizen is allowed to own gold and silver
◦ The slaves will help the citizens to works on the land. So
they will not be too much preoccupied with property
matters.

48.  Women should share the educational advantages and
be free to work in the same fields.
 However the community of wives and children is not
proposed.
 Nevertheless to ensure the welfare of the state, certain
precautions should be taken:
◦ Union in marriage of opposites to reduce extreme of human
nature
◦ Rich should marry poor, strong should marry weak, the
hotheaded should marry the phlegmatic.
◦ Marriage is not only for private end but also for public end.

49.  Government:
◦ The best practicable is the combination between
oligarchy and democracy.
◦ Peace and harmony are difficult if citizens are denied
some kind of voice in the governing process.
◦ It comprises assembly, council, and magistrates.
◦ Citizens capable of bearing arms are entitled to
membership in assembly.
◦ Election is used to select member of council of 360. The
Class structure of 4 is used in the process. Each class is
entitled to one-fourth of the membership.

50.  Government:
◦ Wealth is equate with virtues?
◦ Minister of education is the highest of all the state
officers.
◦ State should control religious practice, so that it will
not affect the obedience to the state

51.  Men are not created equal. They vary in many
respects.
 Human should be directed by a knowledgeable elite.
 Freedom and consent is also important. It ensure
peace and harmony of the state.
 However freedom is also a disruptive power. It can
become a force powerful enough to break the rather
fragile bonds of agreement that hold together the
democratic fabric.