Byzantine Art

Byzantine Art
The Age of Justinian
527-565 CE

Sarcophagus with battle of Romans and barbarians, c. 250-260 CE, Museio
As we have learned, Rome was under constant attack from barbarian invasions during
the later Roman Empire
Sarcophagus with battle of Romans and barbarians (Ludovisi
Sarcophagus), c. 250-260 CE, Museo Nazionale Romano

Eventually the barbarians won: in 410 Ce the city of Rome was sacked by the Visigoths,
and in 476 CE the last Roman Emperor was deposed

The greatest empire in history had come to an end

But the Roman Empire continued in the East (marked as pink on this map) with its
capital at Constantinople

Historians refer to this period as the “Byzantine Empire,” but it might be more accurate to
call it the “Eastern Roman Empire”

The Byzantines called themselves “Roman”, and referred to their empire as “the New
Rome” – even though Rome itself was no longer a part of the empire

Portrait of Constantine from the Basilica
Nova, c. 315-330 CE
Constantine had started all of this when he moved the capital of the empire to
Constantinople, and the alliance that he forged between Christianity and kingship was
solidified by the Byzantine Emperors that followed him

Christianity was the only lawful religion, and Byzantine emperors derived their power
directly from God, as illustrated by this mosaic which shows a Byzantine Emperor and
Empress seated beside an enthroned image of Jesus Christ

While the use of hierarchic scale indicates Christ’s greater importance, their proximity to
him symbolizes their divine authority, as does the halos worn by all three figures

The halo derived from ancient images of the sun god Apollo, depicted with rays of light
emanating from his head; in Christian art, it became one of the most recognizable
attributes of divinity

So the Byzantine Empire was a Theocracy: The emperor served as both Caesar and
Pope, and his word was god’s word

As Dr. Steven Rnciman summarizes:
“The constitution of the Byzantine Empire was based on the conviction that it was
the earthly copy of the Kingdom of Heaven. Just as God ruled in Heaven, so the
Emperor, made in his image, should rule on earth and carry out his
commandments.”
Steven Runciman, The Byzantine Theocracy (Cambridge University Press), p. 1

Barberini Ivory, early 6thc
Louvre
The Byzantine Empire flourished under Emperor
Justinian who reigned in the 6th century

Louvre
This ivory panel depicts the emperor Justinian in a format that
recalls Roman triumphal imagery (such as the relief depicting
Marcus Aurelius in a triumphal procession).

Louvre
Dressed in Roman
military attire, Justinian
appears on horseback,
using his spear to block
the passage of a
barbarian, identifiable by
his costume and scruffy
appearance

Louvre
A winged victory crowns
the emperor, while a
personification of the
earth holds the horse’s
hoof in a gesture of
submission

Louvre
To the left, a Roman soldier offers Justinian a victory trophy and
laurel wreath

And on the lower register figures from foreign lands bring tribute,
recalling scenes from ancient Assyria and Persia

The upper portion of the plaque contains an image of Christ flanked
by angels, symbolizing the role of the Byzantine emperor as a
soldier of Christ

Louvre
And so we see the return of familiar elements of the ancient iconography of divine
kingship

Reconstruction of Contantinople
Constantinople was a Roman city like any other Imperial Roman city

It had an aqueduct
A forum
And a Hippodrome

It also had a basilica that
had been built by
Constantine

Called the Hagia Sophia,
the basilica was similar to
St. Peter’s basilica in
Rome

But Constantine’s basilica
was burned down during
the Nika revolts -- a
popular uprising against
the Emperor

Justinian was determined
to rebuild the church as a
symbol of his power
Don’t mess with
me, man!

The new Hagia Sophia represented a new style of church architecture
Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, Hagia Sophia,
Constantinople (Istanbul), Turkey, 532-537

It was a domed structure, like the Roman Pantheon

So it was essentially a domed basilica

Massive in scale, the dome proclaimed that Justinian had returned his empire to the
glory of Rome’s golden age

In this photograph of the building as it stands today, you can see the Minarets that were
added when the building was converted to a mosque by the Ottomans

Inside the building, the great dome produces a spectacular effect.

The ring of windows piercing the base creates the impression that the dome is floating
on a mysterious ring of heavenly light

Equally impressive is the richness of the decorations

The walls were sheathed in richly veined marbles and sparkling gold mosaics that added
to an overall sense of dematerialization

The Byzantine scholar Procopius, who was hired by Justinian to chronicle his
achievements, wrote a vivid description that captures the spectacular effect the building
must have had on contemporary observers

“The church is singularly full of light and sunshine; you would declare that the place is
not lighted by the sun from without, but that the rays are produced within itself, such an
abundance of light is poured into this church….”
Procopius, De Aedificiis

Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, Hagia Sophia, Constantitinope (Istanbul), Turkey
532-537 BCE
The architects of the Hagia Sophia confronted a practical problem

The Pantheon consisted of a dome placed on a drum

But Hagia Sophia’s dome had to be placed on a rectangular base.

The solution was the use of pendentives to make the transition from a rectangle to a
circle

The pendentives are the triangular shapes that make the transition from the rectangular
base to the circular dome

The dome that covers the central lobby of the Metropolitan Museum makes use of
pendentives — so be sure to check it out when you visit!

Byzantine Art
The Church of San Vitale

Justinian’s greatest ambition was to restore the Roman empire to its former glory;
through a series of military campaigns he strove to recover the western territories that
had fallen to invading barbarians
I want Rome
back!!!!

In 540 CE Justinian’s armies took the city of Ravenna, which became an important
symbol of his claims to the western empire

To “mark his territory” Justinian sponsored monuments that proclaimed his authority.
San Vitale, Ravenna, 526-547

The church of San Vitale was dedicated to Saint Vitalis, a Christian marty

The building introduced a new architectural style that became the norm for the Eastern
Orthodox church

Unlike the western basilica, with a plan in the shape of a cross, San Vitale is centrally
planned in its design
Western Basilica Plan Eastern Central Plan

The building is in the shape of an octagon and topped by a dome

The central plan became the norm for Byzantine churches; it was the Byzantine
alternative to the western basilica style

Like most Christian churches, San Vitale is plain on the outside

But the interior richly was decorated with expensive marbles and shimmering mosaics

The building literally sparkles with jewel-like colors and light

This mosaic is located in the apse above the altar

As we move closer, the image appears to float above us like a heavenly apparition

It depicts Jesus Christ seated on an orb of the universe floating above a landscape from
which flows the Four Rivers of Paradise

Christ wears the imperial colors of purple and gold, and a jeweled nimbus (or halo)
surrounds his head, symbolizing his divinity

To the right, Bishop Ecclesius (the Bishop in charge when the church was built) hands a
model of the church to an angel as an offering to Christ

To the left, Christ hands a Martyr’s crown to Saint Vitalis, for whom the church was
named

The most notable feature of this work is its lack of naturalism

Although the imagery clearly draws upon Greco-Roman art, all illusion of three
dimensional volume and depth has been suppressed in favor of a highly stylized
approach that is more symbolic than real

We can see this in the treatment the drapery, which has been simplified into linear
patterns with a minimal amount of shading

The outlines make the figures seem flat and cartoonish

We can also see an absence of naturalism in the stiff poses of the figures

They face rigidly forward, placed directly on the frontal plane, so there is no suggestion
of depth behind them

Their feet seem to dangle, as if they are floating, rather than being firmly rooted to the
ground

Frozen in place, they seem to hover in an unreal space where time stands still.

The landscape beneath their feet is also highly stylized (looking more like wallpaper
patterns than anything we might see in nature)

And the gold background behind them looks like nothing on earth

Instead, the shimmering golden hues were meant to suggest the perfect light of heaven

So what can account for this dramatic departure from Greco-Roman naturalism?

One explanation is that Christian theologians regarded illusionistic imagery as deceitful

Saint Augustine argued that images are “lies,” just like actors on a stage are playing a
part – an image is a lie because it is not what it appears to be
Images are lies!

Equally important was the religious taboo against “graven images” that might tempt
worshippers to idolatry
Images
encourage
idolatry

As Dr. Nancy Ross summarizes:
“Christian art, which was initially influenced by the illusionary quality of classical art,
started to move away from representation and instead pushed toward abstraction. Artist
began to abandon classical artistic conventions like shading, modeling and
perspective—conventions that make the image appear more real . . .
Instead, artists favored flat representations of people, animals and objects that only
looked nominally like their subjects in real life. Artists were no longer creating the lies
that Augustine warned against, as these abstracted images removed at least some of
the temptations for idolatry. This new style, adopted over several generations, created a
comfortable distance between the new Christian empire and its pagan past.”
Dr. Nancy Ross, “The Image in Medieval Art,” Khan Academy

So the flat, abstract style was a “work around” that enabled Christian artists to continue
making images, without violating the prohibition against making images!

Below the apse are two mosaics on either side of the altar depicting Justinian and his
imperial court
The Emperor
Justinian and
his imperial
court
The Empress
Theodora
and her court

Justinian is portrayed in the center of the composition, wearing the imperial colors of
purple and gold, and a jeweled crown on his head

These attributes of earthly kingship are complimented by a nimbus (or halo) surrounding
his head, symbolizing his divinity (he is the only figure in the scene worthy of this
attribute)

He carries a bowl that contains the bread for the Eucharistic ceremony

He is surrounded by members of the Imperial administration, identified by the purple
stripe on their robes

To the right are members of the clergy, led by Bishop Maximianus who is identified by an
inscription

They carry a cross, a Gospel book, and an incense burner

To the left are representatives of the army, with the Chi Rho emblazoned on their shields

The image therefore represents the three branches of Byzantine imperial power — the
army, the state, and the church – with the emperor at its head.
Head of ChurchHead of StateHead of Army

Interestingly, the hierarchy of the Byzantine political organization is reflected in the
positioning of the feet

Justinian literally steps on the foot of his second in command, who in turn steps on the
foot of his subordinate, just as the Bishop Maximianus steps on the foot of his next in
command

The same rejection of naturalism that we observed in the apse mosaic can be seen in
this image

All of the figures are posed frontally, and are crowded on the foreground plane

. All movement is suppressed, and there is little sense of volume or depth

The drapery is highly stylized, providing no sense of the body underneath, and the
figures seem strangely elongated, as their feet seem to dangle in space rather than
resting firmly on the ground

As we have seen, the absence of naturalism in Byzantine art was stimulated in part by
the fear of idolatry, but it could also be argued that stylization served the purpose of
elevating the emperor to the status of the supernatural — a state of existence that
supersede the bounds of earthly reality

Consider, for example, this panegyric speech written in praise the emperor Constantine
IX:
“Shall I, then, compare you to someone? But whoever could make you a subject of
comparison, you who are so great and above compare?… For you have outdone
nature, and have become closest to the ranks of the spiritual beings . . . How
therefore shall we complete your portrait…? For you are to some extent a being
with a body and without a body, both above nature and better than nature. We
compare you, therefore, to the finest of bodies and to the more immeasurable of
those without bodies.”[1]

In an effort to elevate the emperor above the everyday, the author describes him as
being beyond nature — “a body without a body, both above nature and better than
nature.”

This same process of exaltation can be seen in the use of stylization to transform the
emperor into an imposing image that exists outside of time and space.

Byzantine Art
Icons and the Iconoclastic Controversy

Icons (from the Greek eikon, meaning “image”) are images of Jesus,
Mary, and the saints that provide a direct connection to the Holy
individual represented

Icons are literally prayed to (or “venerated”) by individuals in a complex ritual involving
bowing, kneeling, or kissing

Wonderworking Icon of St. Nicholas is venerated
http://iconreader.wordpress.com/2011/02/17/miraculous-icon-of-tsar-
nicholas-in-st-petersburg/
The eighth-century theologian John of Damascus urged the faithful to ”embrace
[icons] with the eyes, the lips, the heart, bow before them, love them . . .” (NGA)

Many icons were (and still are) believed to possess miraculous
powers: some of them weep, or bleed, or can cure people of
illnesses

Iconostasis of Saint Sava’s Serbian Orthodox Church, Boston
Image source: http://pluralism.org/landscape/boston/christianity/eastern/
Icons were used to decorate church walls (usually mosaic), or were painted on small
panels that are displayed on an iconostasis — a screen that separates the altar from
the rest of the church

Icons were also used privately in the home: they would be hung on walls, gathered in
an “icon corner,” or arranged on a table for purposes of private veneration

Chludov Psalter, 9th c. Crucifixion and Iconoclasts
whitewashing an icon
In the 8th century CE a controversy erupted in
Byzantium over religious icons

Chludov Psalter, 9th c. Crucifixion and Iconoclasts
whitewashing an icon
It is called the “Iconoclastic Controversy”
Icon means “image”
An “iconcoclast” is someone who is against
images

Wonderworking Icon of St. Nicholas is venerated
http://iconreader.wordpress.com/2011/02/17/miraculous-icon-of-tsar-
nicholas-in-st-petersburg/
“The Iconoclastic debate centered on the appropriate use of icons in religious
veneration . . . . Fear that the viewer misdirected his/her veneration toward the
image rather than to the holy person represented in the image lay at the heart of
this controversy”
Metropolitan Museum

The controversy began in 726 when Emperor Leo III ordered the
destruction of all icons

Some believe that part of his goal was to appease Jewish and Muslim
populations, who had strong objections to images

Icon of the Triumph of
Orthodoxy, c. 1400 CE.
British Museum
“Orthodoxy” was restored in 9th century under Empress
Theodora, as depicted in this 14th century painting showing the
Empress and clergy venerating an icon of the Virgin

After much serious debate, theologians justified icon worship as a form of
“veneration” rather than “idolatry”

They argued that when people venerate an icon, they are worshipping the holy
individual and not the image itself

But strict rules against naturalism were implemented, in order to avoid the
temptation towards idolatry

Monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt
Very few early icons survived the Iconoclastic Controversy, but some of the earliest
surviving icons come from the Monastery of Saint Catherine, in Mount Sinai, Egypt,
which was far enough away from Constantinople to escape the iconoclasts

Icons were (and still are) created by monks as part of their religious
devotions

Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between
Saints Theodore and George, icon, 6th or
early 7th c., encaustic on wood,
Monastery of St. Catherine, Sainai
This icon from the Monastery at Saint Catherin, portrays
Mary as “Theotokos” — literally “one who gives birth to
Christ.”

Statuette of Isis and Horus, c. 330-30 CE, Ptolmaic Egypt,
Metropolitan Museum
Statuette: Isis Nursing Horus, Egypt, Late Period, 664-332
BC
Louvre
The format of the seated Virgin with the Christ child on her lap actually
derives from Egyptian images of the goddess Isis cradling Horus — an
example of religious syncretism, where elements of one religious tradition is
absorbed into another

Mary is flanked by Saints Theodore and George, who
serve as “intercessors” – a kind of “go between” between
Mary and the viewer

While Mary averts her gaze towards Heaven, the intercessors look directly out at us,
ready to receive our prayers

Behind them are two angels, who look up at the hand of god reaching down from
heaven

The style of the painting closely resembles mummy portraits from Roman Egypt,
and still retains some of the modeling with light and shade that was common in
Roman art

But the departure from naturalism has begun in the treatment of space
and depth

The figures are crowded onto the foreground plane, with
little suggestion of depth, and their feet dangle as if they
are floating in space

This is a heavenly, rather than an earthly, world – where
gravity has no relevance

Icon of Christ Pantocrator, encaustic on
wood, 6th c.
Monastery of St. Catherine, Mount Sinai,
Egypt
This icon, also from the monastery of St. Catherine, depicts Christ as
“Pantocrator” — meaning “almighty,” “all knowing,” or “all-ruler”

wood, 6th c.
Egypt
It is the oldest known icon of Jesus Christ

wood, 6th c.
Egypt
The image is remarkably naturalistic, with subtle gradations of shading
modeling the face, and the foreshortened hand that seems to reach out
into space

wood, 6th c.
Egypt
But these last remnants of Greco-Roman naturalism would soon
disappear

Christ Pantocrator, dome mosaic, Church of the Dormition, Daphni,
Greece, c. 1090-1100
Icon of Christ Pantocrator, encaustic on wood, 6th c.
Monastery of St. Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt
After the Iconoclastic Controversy, and the restoration of Orthodoxy, icons became
increasingly abstract, and less realistic

Greece, c. 1090-1100
This mosaic icon of the Pantocrator, from a church in Greece, is clearly based on the
painted icon from Egypt – but the original has been “cartoonized,” as the rounded
forms are translated into flat stylized patterns

Greece, c. 1090-1100
The abstraction of the image removes it from reality, and reduces the risk of
mistaking it for reality

One of the interesting things about icons is that they all look pretty much alike

Greece, c. 1090-1100
We already looked at a Greek mosaic from the 11th-12th century, that was obviously a
copy of a 6th century icon from from Egypt

And if you Google “Pantocrator” you will find thousands of images that all look like
they are more or less copies of the same image

wood, 6th c.
Egypt
Since this is the earliest known icon of Jesus, it is as close to an actual
“portrait that anybody is going to get – so over the centuries, icon
painters have copied it as if it was Jesus Christ himself

wood, 6th c.
Egypt
And this is what gives the icon its power – to kiss the icon is like kissing
Jesus Christ

Michael Damaskenos, St. Luke
Painting the Virgin, 1400, Icon
Museum Recklinghausen
http://www.museumofrussianicons.org/
iconostasis/
According to legend, Saint Luke painted the first icon of
the Virgin

Michael Damaskenos, St. Luke
Painting the Virgin, 1400, Icon
Museum Recklinghausen
http://www.museumofrussianicons.org/
iconostasis/
That original icon is known as the “Hodegetria” – “she
who points the way – and it was believed to have been
stored in a monastery in Constantinople

Processional icon of the Virgin Hodegetria (front) and the Man of Sorrows (back), last
quarter of 12th century; tempera and silver on wood
Byzantine Museum, Kastoria
The Virgin Hodegetria of Smolensk
http://www.icon-art.info/hires.php?lng=en&type=1&id=1126
Luke’s image is gone, but many surviving icons claim to be based on this
original “Luke image”

Processional icon of the Virgin Hodegetria (front) and the Man of Sorrows (back), last
quarter of 12th century; tempera and silver on wood
Byzantine Museum, Kastoria
The Virgin Hodegetria of Smolensk
http://www.icon-art.info/hires.php?lng=en&type=1&id=1126
So to venerate one of these icons is to come as close to the actual presence of
the Vrigin Mary as anybody could ever possibly get

So this explains why all icons look alike: they are all, essentially, copies of copies
of copies of a sacred original that can bring the faithful close to the Holy individual
represented

Christ, Not Made by Hands, Museum of Russian Icons, c. 1550
http://www.museumofrussianicons.org/iconostasis/
Some icons were believed to appear
“miraculously,” as if sent by God

Christ, Not Made by Hands, Museum of Russian Icons, c. 1550
http://www.museumofrussianicons.org/iconostasis/
These were known as acheiropoieta (“not
made by (human) hands”)

Crucifixion, mosaic in the
Church of the Dormition,
Daphni, Greece, c. 1090-
1100 BCE
Later Byzantine mosaics reveal an increased
interest in drama and emotion

The Byzantine style spread to Italy and Europe during the Middle Ages

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_fAgls5bGXs

Cathedral of Monreale, near Palermo, Siciliy, 12th century
This Cathedral is in Sicily, so it was built in the western basilica style

Cathedral of Monreale, near Palermo, Siciliy, 12th century
But the mosaics are Byzantine in style

Apse mosaic with Pantocrator, Cathedral of
Monreale, near Palermo, Siciliy, 12th century
Pantocrator: Christ as “all ruler”

He stands the full height of the
church like Phidias’ Athena

Like painted icons, the figures are frontal and look directly at the viewer, ready to
receive the prayers of the faithful

The nave of Monreale is decorated with mosaics illustrating stories from the bible

Byzantine Art

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