Building Materials & Construction Module-2

BUILDING MATERIALS & CONSTRUCTION - 18CV34
ABHILASH B.L. M.Tech, IGBC-AP.
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Civil Engineering,
VidyaVardhaka College of Engineering,
Mysuru – 570002.
Building Materials & Construction (18CV34)

Module-II
Foundation
Preliminary investigation of soil, safe bearing capacity of soil, Function and requirements of good
foundation , types of foundation , introduction to spread, combined, strap, mat and pile foundation.
Masonry
Definition and terms used in masonry. Brick masonry, characteristics and requirements of good
brick masonry, Bonds in brick work, Header, Stretcher, English, Flemish bond, Stone masonry,
Requirements of good stone masonry, Classification, characteristics of different stone masonry,
Joints in stone masonry. Types of walls; load bearing, partition walls, cavity walls.

Major Building Parts
Superstructure
Substructure
Foundation

Ground Level
Super-structure
foundation
Distribute building load to the ground

Basic Design Procedure
• Assessment of site conditions in the context of the site & soil investigation report
Choosing the foundation type, should consider:
• Soil condition
• Type of structure
• Structural loading
• Economic factors
• Time factors relative to the proposed contract period
• Construction problem
Sizing the chosen foundation in the context of loading, ground bearing capacity & any
likely future movement of the building / structure

Preliminary investigation of soil
Soil investigations involve the following steps:
1.Planning the details and sequence of operations
2.Collection of soil samples from the field
3.Conducting all field tests for determining the strength and compressibility
characteristics of the soil
4.Study of ground water level conditions and collection of water samples for
chemical analysis
5.Geophysical exploration if necessary
6.Testing in the laboratory of all samples of soil, rock, and water
7.Preparation of drawings and charts
8.Analysis of the results of the tests
9.Preparation of report

•Inspection
•Test pits
•Probing
•Boring
Methods of Soil Investigations

• Site and its vicinity to get a preliminary idea of the
site conditions.
• This includes the study of the existing buildings in
the neighbourhood and if possible the type of their
foundations.
• The cuts made in the nearby areas should also be
looked into.
• The subject can be discussed with those persons who were associated in
constructing buildings in the surroundings with regard to their experiences and
difficulties encountered by them.

• Test pits
Test pits are dug by hand or by excavating machines. The size of the pit should be
such that a person can easily enter the pit and have a visual inspection. Both
disturbed and undisturbed soil samples are collected from the pit for detailed
analysis.

Probing
• This will give a rough idea of the underlying soil.
• A steel bar of 25 to 40 mm (1 inch to 1.5 inch) in diameter is driven into the
ground until a hard stratum is met with.
• The bar is driven by a hammer.
• The bar is then drawn out at intervals and the soil sticking to the bar is
examined to get an idea of the type of the soil.
• An experienced workman can assess the nature of the soil by observing the
way the rod is penetrated into the soil.

Probing

•Boring
Boring helps in obtaining
1) Nature of each stratum and the engineering properties of the soils.
2) Location of ground water table.
3) The depth and number of boreholes will depend upon the type of the structure
and nature of the soil as obtained from preliminary examination.
4) The depth of boreholes is governed by the depth of the soil affected by the
loading.
5) Investigate the subsoil to a depth of at least twice the width of the anticipated
largest size of the foundation.

Auger Boring
• The examination of the soil for
ordinary buildings can be done by
a Auger.
• The auger is held vertically and is
driven into the ground by rotating
its handle.
• At every 30 cm of depth, the
auger is taken out and the soil
samples collected.

Wash Boring
• Wash boring is commonly used for boring in
difficult soil.
• The hole is advanced by an auger and then a
casing pipe is pushed to prevent the sides from
caving in.
• A stream of water under pressure is forced
through the rod into the hole.
• The loosened soil in suspension in water is
collected in a tub.

Core Drilling
• When rocks are to be penetrated for examination, core drilling is resorted
to.
• In this process, a hole is made by rotating a hollow steel tube having a
cutting bit at its end

Safe bearing capacity of soil. – (SBC of Soil)
• The bearing capacity of a soil is defined as the capacity of the subsoil to
support the load of the structure without yielding.
• The bearing capacity of the soil depends upon the characteristics such as
cohesion, friction, and unit weight.
• The bearing capacity can be determined in the field and also from the results
of tests conducted in the laboratory on the soil samples.

Field and Laboratory Testing
Field Tests
The commonly adopted field tests are:
• Standard penetration test,
• Dynamic cone penetration test,
• Static cone penetration test,
• Plate load test,
• Vane shear test, and
• Pressure meter test.

Field and Laboratory Testing
Laboratory Tests
A set of laboratory tests are required to be done to obtain the soil parameters for
the design of foundation. These tests are:
1. Shear strength,
2. Compressibility,
3. Permeability,
4. Chemical and Mineralogical Composition, and
5. Soil Classification.

The main objectives of foundation design are
To ensure that the
structural loads are
transmitted to the subsoil
safely, economically and
without any
unacceptable movement
during the construction
period and throughout
the anticipated life of the
building or structure

Functions of good foundation
1. Distribution of loads
2. Stability against sliding & overturning
3. Minimize differential settlement
4. Safe against undermining
5. Provide level surface
6. Minimize distress against soil movement

1. Distribution of loads
Foundation help to distribute the loads of superstructure to a large of the soil
Therefore, the intensity of load at its base does not exceed the safe bearing
capacity of the soil
In the case of deep foundations, the super imposed loads are transmitted
either through end bearing or both by side friction & end bearing

2. Stability against sliding & overturning
• Foundation imparts lateral stability to the super structure by anchoring
it to the ground
• It increases the stability against sliding & overturning due to
horizontal forces to wind, earthquake, etc.

3. Minimize differential settlement
• Foundation distribute the super-imposed loads evenly on the sub-soil,
even in the case of non-uniform loads
• This can be achieved by constructing combined footing or raft
foundation

4. Safe against undermining
Foundation provide safety against scouring or undermining by flood water or
burrowing animals

5. Provide level surface
It provides level surface over which superstructure can be raised

Distress or failure due to expansion or
contraction of the sub-soil due to
moisture variation in clayey & black
cotton soils are minimized by the
provision of special type foundations
6. Minimize distress against soil movement

Requirements of good foundation
ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OFA GOOD FOUNDATION
1. The foundations shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and to transmit
these to the sub-soil in such a way that pressure on it will not cause settlement which would
impair the stability of the building or adjoining structures.
2. Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlements are minimised, specially for
the case when super-imposed loads are not evenly distributed.
Contd…..

Requirements of good foundation
Contd….
3. Foundations should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage or
distress caused by swelling or shrinkage of the sub-soil.
4. Foundations should be so located that its performance may not be affected due to any
unexpected future influence.

1. Shallow Foundation
2. Deep Foundation

Shallow Foundation
1. Spread Footings
2. Combined Footings
3. Strap Footings
4. Mat Footings
Deep Foundation
1. Pile Foundations
Types of foundation

Introduction to Spread Footing
 It spread the super imposed load of wall or column over a large area
 It supports either a column or wall
 It may be of the following types:
i.Single footing for a column
ii.Stepped footing for a column
iii.Sloped footing for a column
iv.Wall footing without step
v.Stepped footing for wall
vi.Grillage foundation.

Spread Footing for WALL
Wall footing without step
Stepped Footing

Introduction to combined

Introduction to strap

Introduction to mat

Introduction to Pile foundation.

MASONRY
 Masonry- Construction using building units bonded together with
mortar
 Different Masonry Units
 Stones
 Bricks
 Precast Concrete Blocks
 In load bearing works it can provide- support to loads, partitioning,
thermal and acoustic insulation, fire and weather resistance
2

3
 Different types of Masonry
 Stone masonry
 Brick masonry
 Hollow Concrete block masonry
 Reinforced brick masonry
 Composite masonry

MASONRY
4
 Mortar acts as cementing material and binds individual masonry
units together to act as a homogeneous mass
 Common mortars used in Brick Masonry
 Cement mortar
 Lime mortar
 Cement-lime mortar
 Lime surkhi mortar
 Mud mortar

BRICK MASONRY
 When bricks are laid in mortar in a proper systematic manner, they form a
homogeneous mass, which can withstand forces without disintegration. This
mass of the structure, so made by the use of bricks is called "Brick
Masonry" or simply "Brick work".
 Bricks are of uniform size and shape, light in weight, durable, fire resistant,
have high resale value, low maintenance cost and are easily available in
plain areas.
 Brick Masonry is commonly used for construction of ordinary as well as
important buildings in plain areas now-a-days.

SOME IMPORTANT TERMS USED IN BRICK MASONRY
(1) BRICK
 An artificial structural element in the form of a rectangular block of clay is
called a “Brick ". Bricks can be manufactured of any required shape and
size. The sizes of some standard bricks are given as follows:

(2) FROG
 The depression provided in the face of a brick is called a "Frog".
 It is provided in the brick to achieve the following purposes:
(a)To form a key of mortar in between any two adjacent courses of brick work, so as to
increase the lateral strength of the structure.
(b)To reduce the weight of the bricks, so that the bricks can be laid with convenience.
(c) To provide a place for putting the impression of trade-mark or
the year of manufacturing of the bricks.

(3) POSITION OF BRICKS
 (a) The position of brick, when laid with its Frog upward in the
horizontal plane, is termed as "Brick on bed".
 (b) The position of the brick when laid on its side "9 in x 3 in", with
frog in the vertical plane is called "Brick on edge".
 (c) The position of brick when laid on its side "4 1/2 in x 3 in", with
frog in the vertical plane is
called " Brick on end".

(4) COURSE
Each horizontal layer of bricks laid in mortar in a brick work is called a
"course".
(5) STRETCHER
Brick, laid with its length horizontal and parallel with the face of the wall or other masonry member is
called a "Stretcher" and a course, in which, all the bricks are laid as Stretchers is called a “Stretching
course" or "Stretcher course".

(6) HEADER
A brick laid, so that only its end shows on the face of a wall is called a
"Header" and a course, in which all the bricks are laid as headers, is known as
"Heading Course" or "Header course".

(7) QUOIN
The external corner of the wall is called a "Quoin".
(8) QUOIN BRICK
The brick, which forms the external corner of a wall is known as " Quoin brick".
(9) QUOIN HEADER
A corner header, in the face of wall, which is a stretcher in the side wall is
known as "Quoin header".
(10) QUOIN STRETCHER
A corner stretcher in the face of a wall, which is header in the side wall is known
as "Quoin stretcher".

(11) BRICK BATS
 The pieces of bricks, cut long their length and having width equivalent to
that of a full or half brick are called "Brick bats“.
 Some common Brick Bats are shown below:

(12) QUEEN CLOSER
 Queen closer is a brick, which is half as wide as full brick and is made by
cutting a whole brick lengthwise into two portions.
 These are generally used next to the Quoin header for creating bonds in
brickwork.
(13) KING CLOSER
 A brick, whose one diagonal piece is cut off one corner by a vertical plane
passing through the center of one end to the center of one side.
 It is actually 7/8 of a full brick but is usually called a 3/4 brick

(14) BEVELED CLOSER
 A brick cut longitudinally along a vertical plane, starting at the middle of one end to the
far corner.
 One quarter of the brick is cut off in this way.
(15) BULL NOSE BRICK
 A brick with rounded corners is called a “Bull Nose Brick”
(16) SQUINT BRICKS
 These bricks are used to construct acute (>90 degree) or obtuse (< 90 degree) corners in
brick masonry.
 These are special forms of bricks.

BONDS
Bond is the arrangement of bricks or stones in each course, so as to ensure the greatest
possible interlocking and to avoid the continuity of vertical joints in two successive
courses, both on the face and in the body of a wall.
OBJECTIVES OF BONDS
A bond is provided to achieve the following objectives:
 The primary objective of providing a bond is to break the continuity of the vertical joints in the
successive courses both in the length and thickness of masonry structure.
 The structure will act as a bounded mass and its load will be transmitted uniformly to the
foundations.
 To ensure longitudinal and lateral strength of the structure.
 To provide pleasing appearance by laying bricks symmetrically.
 To do masonry work quickly by engaging more masons on a job at a time.

22
 Amount of lap should be minimum one fourth brick along the length of wall and one
half brick across thickness of wall
 Bricks should be uniform in size to get uniform lap
 Stretchers should be in facing
 Use of brick bats should be discouraged except under special circumstances
 Vertical joints in the alternate courses should be along same perpend
Rules to get a good brick bond

TYPES OF BONDS
(1) ENGLISH BOND
The bond, in which headers and stretchers are laid in alternate courses, is
called "English bond".

ENGLISH BOND
The following are the salient features of English bond:
(i) Headers and stretchers are laid in alternate courses.
(ii)In each heading course, a queen closer is placed next to quoin header and the
remaining bricks are laid as headers.
(iii)Every alternate header in a course comes centrally over the joint between
two stretchers in the course below, giving an approximate lap of 2 ¼ in.

ENGLISH BOND
27
 Strongest bond in brick work
 Alternate course consists of headers and stretchers
 Queen closer is put next to quoin header to develop lap
 Each alternate header is centrally supported over a stretcher
 Continuous vertical joints are not formed other than at certain points
 If wall thickness is even multiple of half brick- front and back elevation will have headers
and stretchers, if uneven multiple, it will show different sides on front and back elevation
 Number of joints in header course is twice that of stretcher, hence they should be made
thinner
 Header course should never start with a queen closer

(2) FLEMISH BOND
The bond, in which headers and stretchers are laid alternately in the same course, is called "Flemish bond".

Flemish bond:
The following are the salient features of Flemish bond:
(i) Headers and stretchers are laid alternately in the same course.
(ii)Every header in each course lies centrally over every stretcher of the underlying
course.
(iii)In every alternate course a queen closer is placed next to quoin header, so as to
provide a lap of approximately 2 1/4 in.
(iv)Brick bats are to be used in walls having thickness equal to an odd multiple of half
brick.
 Of two types
 Single Flemish bond
 Double Flemish bond

Sl
No.
English Bonds Flemish bond
1 This bond consists of headers and stretchers
laid in alternative courses.
This bond consists of headers and stretchers laid
alternatively in each course.
2 It is strongest of all the bonds. It is less strong for walls having thickness more
than 13 ½ inches.
3 It provides rough appearance especially for one brick thick
walls.
It provides good appearance for all thickness of
walls.
4 There are no noticeable continuous vertical joints in the
structure built in this bond.
There are partly continuous vertical joints in the
structure built in this bond.
5 Much attention is not required in providing this bond. Special attention is required in providing this bond.
6 Progress of work is more. Progress of work is less.
7 It is costly because the use of brick bats is It is economical because brick bats are
not allowed. allowed for forming this bind.
Comparison of English Bond and Flemish bond

(3) HEADING BOND
 The bond in which all the bricks are laid as headers in every course of a wall is called "Heading
bond".
 3/4 bats are laid as quoin bricks in the alternate courses to break the continuity of vertical joints,
which increases the transverse strength but weakens the longitudinal strength of the wall.
 This bond is commonly used for constructing steining of wells, footings of walls and columns,
corbels, cornices, etc.

BONDS IN BRICK WORK
35
 Header bond
 All bricks arranged in header courses
 Overlap is equal to half width of brick
 Does not have strength to transmit pressure in the direction of length of
wall
 Not suitable for load bearing walls, but used in curved surfaces

(4) STRETCHING BOND
 The bond in which all the bricks are laid as stretchers in every course is called "Stretching bond”.
 This bond is provided for constructing 4 ½ in thick partition walls.

37
 Stretcher bond
 Useful for one brick partition
walls
 Does not develop proper internal
bond, should not be used for
walls having greater thickness
than one brick thickness

STONE MASONRY
Rock, that is removed from its natural site and generally, cut or
dressed and then finished for building purposes, is called "Stone"
and the art of building the structure with stones as constructional
units is called "Stone Masonry".

MAIN TYPES OF STONE MASONRY
(1) Rubble Masonry
(2) Ashlar Masonry

RUBBLE MASONRY
• The stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly
dressed stones are laid is called "Rubble masonry".
• In this masonry, the joints of mortar are not of uniform
thickness.

RANDOM RUBBLE MASONRY
 The rubble masonry in which either undressed or hammer dressed stones
are used is called "Random Rubble Masonry".
 The strength of this masonary depends upon the bond between the stones.
 The bond should be sound both transversely and longitudinally.
 Transverse bond is obtained by the liberal use of "Bonders" and
"Throughs"

(b) SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY
 The Rubble masonry in which the face stones are roughly squared by
hammer dressing or chisel dressing, before their actual laying is called
"Squared Rubble masonry".
 There are three Types of squared rubble masonry:

(i) UNCOURSED SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY
 In this type of squared rubble masonry, the
stones are roughly squared and built without
continuous horizontal courses .
 It is used for ordinary buildings in hilly areas,
where a good variety of stones are easily and
cheaply available.

(ii) BUILT TO COURSES SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY
The stones are roughly squared and laid in courses to bond
in with the larger quoin stones.

(iii) REGULAR COURSED SQUARED RUBBLE MASONRY
 This type of masonry is built in courses of varying height but the
stones in any one course are of the same depth.
 It is mostly used in public buildings, hospitals, schools, markets,
modern residential buildings and in hilly areas, where a good quality of
stone is easily and cheaply available.

(c) DRY RUBBLE MASONRY
 The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without using any mortar is
known as " Dry Rubble Masonry".
 It is an ordinary masonry and is recommended for constructing walls of
height not more than 18 ft.
 In case, the height is more, three adjacent courses are laid in Squared
rubble masonry, in mortar at 9 ft interval.

(2) ASHLAR MASONRY
 The stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime
mortar, is known as "Ashlar Masonry".
 In this masonry all the joints are regular, thin, and of uniform thickness.
 This type of masonry is costly in construction as involves heavy cost
of dressing of stones.
 This masonry is used for heavy structures, arches, architectural
buildings, high piers, abutments of bridges, etc.

(a) ASHLER FINE / COURSED ASHLAR MASONRY
 In this type of masonry stone blocks of same height are used in
each course.
 Every stone is fine tooled on all sides.
 Thickness of Mortar joint is less than 1/16 in and is uniform
through out.

(b) RANDOM COURSED ASHLAR MASONRY
This type of Ashlar masonry consists of fine or coursed Ashlar
masonry but the courses are of varying thickness, depending upon
the character of the building.

(d) QUARRY FACED ASHLAR MASONRY
 This type of Ashlar masonry is similar to rough tooledAshlar masonry but there is chisel-drafted
margin left rough on the face.

(e) CHAMFERED ASHLAR MASONRY
It is similar to Quarry faced except that the edges are given a
slope of 45 degree for a depth of 1 in. or more.

COMPARISON BETWEEN BRICK MASONRY AND STONE MASONRY
(1) Stone is stronger and more durable than brick and for public buildings; it
is decidedly more suitable than brick. It reflects strength in every inch of it.
It is in tune with nature. Its color improves and looks more serene with
age.
On the other hand, brick is an artificial product made as a copy of stone. It
is flimsy material and plastering is only a camouflage for its defects.

• (2) Stone is water proof. On the other hand, Brick absorbs moisture and
with dampness certain salts rise in the walls from the ground and cause
disintegration of bricks.
(3)Brick offers greater facility for ornamental work in plaster as a rough
shape can first be given to it by means of any tool. This is not so in case of
stones.
(4)Plaster does not stick so well to stones as it does to brick.
(5)On account of the regular shape and uniform size of brick, a proper
bond can be obtained with comparative ease.

(6) Due to the handy size of brick, brick masonry can be more rapidly
constructed than stone masonry.
(7) Brick wall requires a fixed quantity of mortar and even with careless
masons, the regular shape of the brick considerably reduces the possibility
of hollows being left in the body of the wall. This is not so with some stone
walls.

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