The document discusses various topics related to ecology and ecosystems, including:
1) Ecology is defined as the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. Ecosystems include all organisms and non-living components found in a particular place.
2) Ecological succession is the process of change in species structure over time, often occurring when environmental conditions change suddenly.
3) Trophic levels, food chains, and food webs are discussed as ways energy passes between producers, consumers, and decomposers within ecosystems.
4) Ecological pyramids illustrate the structure of ecosystems based on numbers, biomass, and energy at different trophic levels.
ENVI 3 energy flow in an ecosystem FINALYhan Marianne
This document discusses energy flow through ecosystems. It describes the four trophic levels from primary producers to tertiary consumers. Primary producers like plants obtain energy from the sun through photosynthesis, which is then transferred through food chains and webs. As energy moves between trophic levels, about 90% is lost as heat and only 10% on average is transferred, following the laws of thermodynamics. This is illustrated by pyramids of energy and biomass that show decreasing amounts at higher trophic levels.
This document discusses key concepts in ecology, including food chains, food webs, populations, and bioaccumulation. It explains that ecology is the study of how living organisms interact with each other and their environment. It also describes how energy flows between organisms in a food chain and how multiple food chains combine to form a food web within an ecosystem. Finally, it outlines how toxins can accumulate in organisms at higher levels of the food web and impact populations.
This document provides an overview of ecosystems, including:
1. The definition of an ecosystem as the structural and functional unit of ecology encompassing the interaction between biotic and abiotic components.
2. The key characteristics, structure, and functions of ecosystems, such as energy flow, nutrient cycling, and trophic levels.
3. Details on primary productivity, decomposition, and the flow of energy through food chains and webs within ecosystems.
The document is intended for educational purposes and provides information compiled from various sources on the basic concepts of ecosystems.
Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramid
Types of pyramid
Pyramid of numbers
Pyramid of biomass
Pyramid of energy
The use of Ecological Pyramid was first described by Charles Elton in 1927.
Ecological Pyramids are graphical representation of the number of individual present or amount of biomass synthesized or amount of energy stored at successive trophic levels in an ecosystem.
B.tech. i es unit 1 environment ecology and ecosystemRai University
The document discusses the components and structure of the environment. It can be summarized as follows:
The environment has biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components that interact. It is divided into four main spheres - the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. The atmosphere provides gases essential for life. The lithosphere comprises rocks and soil. The hydrosphere contains Earth's water resources. The biosphere is the zone where living organisms exist, encompassing parts of the other spheres. Traditional societies lived in greater harmony with the environment, but modern human activities like population growth, urbanization, and industrialization have degraded the environment through pollution, overexploitation, and biodiversity loss
-WHAT ARE ECOSYSTEMS?
-Parts of an Ecosystem
-Different types of organisms live in an ecosystem.
-Community
-Habitat
-Kinds Of Ecosystem
-Types of Ecosystems
-Components of Ecosystem
-Functions of an ecosystem
-PROCESSES OF ECOSYSTEMS
-Energy Flow Chart
-Types of Food Chains (Samples)
-Food Web
-Ecological Pyramids
-Types of Ecological Pyramids
-Industrial Ecology and Recycling Industry
-Recycling
-Environmental management system (EMS)
-ISO 14000
-Objectives of ISO 14000
-How are these standards developed?
-The 17 requirements of the ISO 14001
-Other standards in ISO 14001 series
In ecology, energy flow, also called the calorific flow, refers to the flow of energy through a food chain. In an ecosystem, ecologists seek to quantify the relative importance of different component species and feeding relationships.
A general energy flow scenario follows:
Solar energy is fixed by the photoautotrophs, called primary producers, like green plants. Primary consumers absorb most of the stored energy in the plant through digestion, and transform it into the form of energy they need, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), through respiration. A part of the energy received by primary consumers, herbivores, is converted to body heat (an effect of respiration), which is radiated away and lost from the system. The loss of energy through body heat is far greater in warm-blooded animals, which must eat much more frequently than those that are cold-blooded. Energy loss also occurs in the expulsion of undigested food (egesta) by excretion or regurgitation.
Secondary consumers, carnivores, then consume the primary consumers, although omnivores also consume primary producers. Energy that had been used by the primary consumers for growth and storage is thus absorbed into the secondary consumers through the process of digestion. As with primary consumers, secondary consumers convert this energy into a more suitable form (ATP) during respiration. Again, some energy is lost from the system, since energy which the primary consumers had used for respiration and regulation of body temperature cannot be utilised by the secondary consumers.
Tertiary consumers, which may or may not be apex predators, then consume the secondary consumers, with some energy passed on and some lost, as with the lower levels of the food chain.
A final link in the food chain are decomposers which break down the organic matter of the tertiary consumers (or whichever consumer is at the top of the chain) and release nutrients into the soil. They also break down plants, herbivores and carnivores that were not eaten by organisms higher on the food chain, as well as the undigested food that is excreted by herbivores and carnivores. Saprotrophic bacteria and fungi are decomposers, and play a pivotal role in the nitrogen and carbon cycles.
The energy is passed on from trophic level to trophic level and each time about 90% of the energy is lost, with some being lost as heat into the environment (an effect of respiration) and some being lost as incompletely digested food (egesta). Therefore, primary consumers get about 10% of the energy produced by autotrophs, while secondary consumers get 1% and tertiary consumers get 0.1%. This means the top consumer of a food chain receives the least energy, as a lot of the food chain's energy has been lost between trophic levels. This loss of energy at each level limits typical food chains to only four to six links.
ENVI 3 energy flow in an ecosystem FINALYhan Marianne
This document discusses energy flow through ecosystems. It describes the four trophic levels from primary producers to tertiary consumers. Primary producers like plants obtain energy from the sun through photosynthesis, which is then transferred through food chains and webs. As energy moves between trophic levels, about 90% is lost as heat and only 10% on average is transferred, following the laws of thermodynamics. This is illustrated by pyramids of energy and biomass that show decreasing amounts at higher trophic levels.
This document discusses key concepts in ecology, including food chains, food webs, populations, and bioaccumulation. It explains that ecology is the study of how living organisms interact with each other and their environment. It also describes how energy flows between organisms in a food chain and how multiple food chains combine to form a food web within an ecosystem. Finally, it outlines how toxins can accumulate in organisms at higher levels of the food web and impact populations.
This document provides an overview of ecosystems, including:
1. The definition of an ecosystem as the structural and functional unit of ecology encompassing the interaction between biotic and abiotic components.
2. The key characteristics, structure, and functions of ecosystems, such as energy flow, nutrient cycling, and trophic levels.
3. Details on primary productivity, decomposition, and the flow of energy through food chains and webs within ecosystems.
The document is intended for educational purposes and provides information compiled from various sources on the basic concepts of ecosystems.
Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramid
Types of pyramid
Pyramid of numbers
Pyramid of biomass
Pyramid of energy
The use of Ecological Pyramid was first described by Charles Elton in 1927.
Ecological Pyramids are graphical representation of the number of individual present or amount of biomass synthesized or amount of energy stored at successive trophic levels in an ecosystem.
B.tech. i es unit 1 environment ecology and ecosystemRai University
The document discusses the components and structure of the environment. It can be summarized as follows:
The environment has biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components that interact. It is divided into four main spheres - the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. The atmosphere provides gases essential for life. The lithosphere comprises rocks and soil. The hydrosphere contains Earth's water resources. The biosphere is the zone where living organisms exist, encompassing parts of the other spheres. Traditional societies lived in greater harmony with the environment, but modern human activities like population growth, urbanization, and industrialization have degraded the environment through pollution, overexploitation, and biodiversity loss
-WHAT ARE ECOSYSTEMS?
-Parts of an Ecosystem
-Different types of organisms live in an ecosystem.
-Community
-Habitat
-Kinds Of Ecosystem
-Types of Ecosystems
-Components of Ecosystem
-Functions of an ecosystem
-PROCESSES OF ECOSYSTEMS
-Energy Flow Chart
-Types of Food Chains (Samples)
-Food Web
-Ecological Pyramids
-Types of Ecological Pyramids
-Industrial Ecology and Recycling Industry
-Recycling
-Environmental management system (EMS)
-ISO 14000
-Objectives of ISO 14000
-How are these standards developed?
-The 17 requirements of the ISO 14001
-Other standards in ISO 14001 series
In ecology, energy flow, also called the calorific flow, refers to the flow of energy through a food chain. In an ecosystem, ecologists seek to quantify the relative importance of different component species and feeding relationships.
A general energy flow scenario follows:
Solar energy is fixed by the photoautotrophs, called primary producers, like green plants. Primary consumers absorb most of the stored energy in the plant through digestion, and transform it into the form of energy they need, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), through respiration. A part of the energy received by primary consumers, herbivores, is converted to body heat (an effect of respiration), which is radiated away and lost from the system. The loss of energy through body heat is far greater in warm-blooded animals, which must eat much more frequently than those that are cold-blooded. Energy loss also occurs in the expulsion of undigested food (egesta) by excretion or regurgitation.
Secondary consumers, carnivores, then consume the primary consumers, although omnivores also consume primary producers. Energy that had been used by the primary consumers for growth and storage is thus absorbed into the secondary consumers through the process of digestion. As with primary consumers, secondary consumers convert this energy into a more suitable form (ATP) during respiration. Again, some energy is lost from the system, since energy which the primary consumers had used for respiration and regulation of body temperature cannot be utilised by the secondary consumers.
Tertiary consumers, which may or may not be apex predators, then consume the secondary consumers, with some energy passed on and some lost, as with the lower levels of the food chain.
A final link in the food chain are decomposers which break down the organic matter of the tertiary consumers (or whichever consumer is at the top of the chain) and release nutrients into the soil. They also break down plants, herbivores and carnivores that were not eaten by organisms higher on the food chain, as well as the undigested food that is excreted by herbivores and carnivores. Saprotrophic bacteria and fungi are decomposers, and play a pivotal role in the nitrogen and carbon cycles.
The energy is passed on from trophic level to trophic level and each time about 90% of the energy is lost, with some being lost as heat into the environment (an effect of respiration) and some being lost as incompletely digested food (egesta). Therefore, primary consumers get about 10% of the energy produced by autotrophs, while secondary consumers get 1% and tertiary consumers get 0.1%. This means the top consumer of a food chain receives the least energy, as a lot of the food chain's energy has been lost between trophic levels. This loss of energy at each level limits typical food chains to only four to six links.
The document summarizes the process of photosynthesis. It describes the structure of chloroplasts, including the chloroplast envelope, internal tykaloids, stroma, and grana. It explains that photosynthesis uses light energy from the sun to produce chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH, and that this process occurs in the chloroplasts. It lists several factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis, including temperature, light intensity, and carbon dioxide concentration.
This document provides an introduction to environmental science. It defines environmental science as the systematic study of the environment and humanity's place within it. Environmental science is highly interdisciplinary and holistic in nature, with the goal of understanding how natural systems function and how human activity impacts those systems. The key components of environmental science discussed include atmospheric sciences, ecology, environmental chemistry, and geosciences.
1) Energy from the sun is absorbed by producers like plants through photosynthesis and converted into chemical energy in sugars. 2) Consumers obtain this energy by eating producers or other consumers. 3) Decomposers break down dead organisms, releasing nutrients back into the environment and completing the energy cycle.
This document defines an ecosystem as the integration of all living and non-living factors in an environment. It describes the key characteristics of ecosystems, including that their structure relates to species diversity and function relates to energy flow and material cycling. Ecosystems are classified as either natural or artificial/man-made, and include terrestrial, aquatic, marine, and other types. The components of ecosystems include biotic factors like producers, consumers, parasites and decomposers, and abiotic factors like inorganic substances, organic substances, and climate. Food chains and trophic levels are also summarized, where energy transfers from producers to various consumer levels, and food chains interconnect to form food webs.
Environment may be consider as our surroundings which includes everything around us, i.e. the non-living (abiotic) and living (biotic) environment.
The abiotic environment consists of air, water and soil, while the biotic environment includes all the living organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms) that we regularly come in contact.
Environment – Basic Concepts:
The environment is composed of four basic components:
i. Atmosphere
ii. Hydrosphere
iii. Lithosphere
iii. Biosphere.
Presentation on Basics of Ecological Pyramids. It will help in getting an overall idea about ecological pyramids in the ecosystem. Also it includes certain advantages and disadvantages of the pyramid types.
Lecture 1ppt Multidisciplinary nature of Environmental studiesSomanath Sarvade
The document discusses environmental studies and disaster management. It provides an overview of the scope of environmental studies, including creating awareness of resources, understanding ecological systems, and learning about causes and consequences of natural and human-induced disasters. It also discusses the multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies and some major environmental issues like global warming, water pollution, pesticide pollution, hazardous waste, and loss of biodiversity. Government organizations and non-government organizations involved in environment are also outlined.
This document provides an introduction to ecosystems. It defines an ecosystem as all the living and non-living things interacting in a given area, with organisms depending on each other and the physical environment. Ecosystems have biotic components like plants, animals and microbes, and abiotic components like air, soil, water and nutrients. The key interactions between living and non-living factors maintain balances like the carbon and nitrogen cycles. Ecosystems can be classified by their environment, such as aquatic ecosystems including wetlands, coral reefs and mangroves, and terrestrial ecosystems like forests and grasslands.
This document discusses the structure and function of ecosystems. It defines an ecosystem as a community of living organisms interacting with each other and their non-living environment. An ecosystem includes biotic components like producers, consumers, and decomposers, as well as abiotic components from the lithosphere like soil, water, and weather. It then explains key ecosystem functions - productivity refers to the rate of biomass production, decomposition recycles organic matter into nutrients, energy flows through the ecosystem from producers to consumers, and nutrients cycle through the living and nonliving components of the ecosystem.
The document defines an ecosystem as a community of living organisms that interact with each other and their physical environment. It describes the key components of an ecosystem as the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors. Some examples of ecosystem types are given such as forests, deserts, grasslands and aquatic ecosystems. The functions of ecosystems are also outlined, including the cycling of nutrients and flow of energy. Global threats to ecosystem viability are mentioned. In conclusion, the document provides an overview of ecosystems, their structures, functions and threats.
The document defines ecology as the scientific study of the interaction between living organisms and their environment. It discusses key concepts in ecology like ecosystems, biotic and abiotic components, energy flow, nutrient cycling, and trophic structure. Some key types of ecosystems mentioned are forests, grasslands, deserts, aquatic, urban, and agricultural ecosystems.
Ecological concepts are introduced and described in the document. The document discusses 7 key ecological concepts:
1) Levels of biological organization ranging from genes to landscapes.
2) The definition of native species and their importance in natural ecosystems.
3) The concept of keystone species that have disproportionate influence on ecosystems.
4) The concept of population viability and extinction thresholds related to amount of habitat.
5) Ecological resilience and the ability of ecosystems to withstand disturbance and return to stability.
6) Disturbances as events that cause changes to ecological systems, both natural and human-induced.
7) Connectivity and fragmentation, and their effects on organism movement between habitat patches.
An ecosystem consists of all the living organisms in a given area along with the abiotic components they interact with, like air, water, soil and sunlight. The structure of an ecosystem includes the biological communities and distribution of organisms, as well as the quantity and distribution of non-living resources. The functions of an ecosystem include nutrient cycling through food chains and webs, energy flow, and processes like primary production and decomposition that allow the ecosystem to function as a self-sustaining unit.
This document provides an overview of ecosystems and ecology. It begins with definitions of ecology and ecosystem, explaining that an ecosystem is the basic unit of ecological study that includes all organisms in a given area interacting with the physical environment. It then discusses key components of ecosystems like abiotic and biotic factors, food chains and webs, trophic levels, and ecological pyramids. Productivity is also summarized, distinguishing between primary productivity by producers and secondary productivity by consumers. The document concludes with models of energy flow through ecosystems and the concept of ecological efficiency.
"Solving the climate crisis is within our grasp, but we need people like you to STAND UP AND ACT."
AL GORE
Founder and Chairman,
The Climate Reality Project
The document discusses the history and structure of ecosystems. It defines an ecosystem as a complex unit of living and non-living things that interact and exchange materials. Ecosystems have biotic components like producers, consumers, and decomposers, as well as abiotic components like soil, water, and nutrients. Producers use photosynthesis to convert sunlight into chemical energy, which consumers then use as food and decomposers break down dead remains, recycling nutrients for producers. Energy and matter flow through the ecosystem via these interactions and components.
This document discusses the scope of ecology, including applied ecology, forestry, rangeland management, fish farming, and wildlife management. Applied ecology involves understanding ecosystem needs, problems, and solutions to aid conservation efforts. Forestry is important for resources, habitat, and environmental benefits. Rangeland management maintains grasslands, soil, and acts as a natural mulch. Fish farming provides food and nutrition to meet the increasing demand for meat. Wildlife management is necessary to protect threatened and endangered species from extinction and maintain ecosystem balance.
The document discusses energy flow through an ecosystem. It explains that grass, frogs, snakes, grasshoppers and hawks interact through a food chain where grass is eaten by grasshoppers which are eaten by snakes or frogs which may then be eaten by hawks. It also defines producers as organisms like grass that can produce their own food, consumers as organisms that cannot produce their own food and eat other organisms, and decomposers as organisms like bacteria and fungi that break down waste and dead organisms.
There are four major types of ecosystems: grassland, forest, aquatic, and desert. Each ecosystem is defined by its biotic and abiotic factors. Biotic factors include living organisms, while abiotic factors include non-living elements like air, soil, water, and sunlight. Ecosystems are classified based on these factors and provide important functions such as purifying water, recycling nutrients, and supporting biodiversity.
The document summarizes and compares two ecosystems in Puerto Rico: Bosque Seco de Guánica and El Yunque National Forest. It describes the different forest areas within each ecosystem, including the types of trees and canopy layers. It also discusses the differences in rainfall, soil composition, and how each ecosystem has adapted. Finally, it provides details on some of the unique flora and fauna found in each forest and some environmental problems currently facing them.
The document summarizes the process of photosynthesis. It describes the structure of chloroplasts, including the chloroplast envelope, internal tykaloids, stroma, and grana. It explains that photosynthesis uses light energy from the sun to produce chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH, and that this process occurs in the chloroplasts. It lists several factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis, including temperature, light intensity, and carbon dioxide concentration.
This document provides an introduction to environmental science. It defines environmental science as the systematic study of the environment and humanity's place within it. Environmental science is highly interdisciplinary and holistic in nature, with the goal of understanding how natural systems function and how human activity impacts those systems. The key components of environmental science discussed include atmospheric sciences, ecology, environmental chemistry, and geosciences.
1) Energy from the sun is absorbed by producers like plants through photosynthesis and converted into chemical energy in sugars. 2) Consumers obtain this energy by eating producers or other consumers. 3) Decomposers break down dead organisms, releasing nutrients back into the environment and completing the energy cycle.
This document defines an ecosystem as the integration of all living and non-living factors in an environment. It describes the key characteristics of ecosystems, including that their structure relates to species diversity and function relates to energy flow and material cycling. Ecosystems are classified as either natural or artificial/man-made, and include terrestrial, aquatic, marine, and other types. The components of ecosystems include biotic factors like producers, consumers, parasites and decomposers, and abiotic factors like inorganic substances, organic substances, and climate. Food chains and trophic levels are also summarized, where energy transfers from producers to various consumer levels, and food chains interconnect to form food webs.
Environment may be consider as our surroundings which includes everything around us, i.e. the non-living (abiotic) and living (biotic) environment.
The abiotic environment consists of air, water and soil, while the biotic environment includes all the living organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms) that we regularly come in contact.
Environment – Basic Concepts:
The environment is composed of four basic components:
i. Atmosphere
ii. Hydrosphere
iii. Lithosphere
iii. Biosphere.
Presentation on Basics of Ecological Pyramids. It will help in getting an overall idea about ecological pyramids in the ecosystem. Also it includes certain advantages and disadvantages of the pyramid types.
Lecture 1ppt Multidisciplinary nature of Environmental studiesSomanath Sarvade
The document discusses environmental studies and disaster management. It provides an overview of the scope of environmental studies, including creating awareness of resources, understanding ecological systems, and learning about causes and consequences of natural and human-induced disasters. It also discusses the multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies and some major environmental issues like global warming, water pollution, pesticide pollution, hazardous waste, and loss of biodiversity. Government organizations and non-government organizations involved in environment are also outlined.
This document provides an introduction to ecosystems. It defines an ecosystem as all the living and non-living things interacting in a given area, with organisms depending on each other and the physical environment. Ecosystems have biotic components like plants, animals and microbes, and abiotic components like air, soil, water and nutrients. The key interactions between living and non-living factors maintain balances like the carbon and nitrogen cycles. Ecosystems can be classified by their environment, such as aquatic ecosystems including wetlands, coral reefs and mangroves, and terrestrial ecosystems like forests and grasslands.
This document discusses the structure and function of ecosystems. It defines an ecosystem as a community of living organisms interacting with each other and their non-living environment. An ecosystem includes biotic components like producers, consumers, and decomposers, as well as abiotic components from the lithosphere like soil, water, and weather. It then explains key ecosystem functions - productivity refers to the rate of biomass production, decomposition recycles organic matter into nutrients, energy flows through the ecosystem from producers to consumers, and nutrients cycle through the living and nonliving components of the ecosystem.
The document defines an ecosystem as a community of living organisms that interact with each other and their physical environment. It describes the key components of an ecosystem as the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors. Some examples of ecosystem types are given such as forests, deserts, grasslands and aquatic ecosystems. The functions of ecosystems are also outlined, including the cycling of nutrients and flow of energy. Global threats to ecosystem viability are mentioned. In conclusion, the document provides an overview of ecosystems, their structures, functions and threats.
The document defines ecology as the scientific study of the interaction between living organisms and their environment. It discusses key concepts in ecology like ecosystems, biotic and abiotic components, energy flow, nutrient cycling, and trophic structure. Some key types of ecosystems mentioned are forests, grasslands, deserts, aquatic, urban, and agricultural ecosystems.
Ecological concepts are introduced and described in the document. The document discusses 7 key ecological concepts:
1) Levels of biological organization ranging from genes to landscapes.
2) The definition of native species and their importance in natural ecosystems.
3) The concept of keystone species that have disproportionate influence on ecosystems.
4) The concept of population viability and extinction thresholds related to amount of habitat.
5) Ecological resilience and the ability of ecosystems to withstand disturbance and return to stability.
6) Disturbances as events that cause changes to ecological systems, both natural and human-induced.
7) Connectivity and fragmentation, and their effects on organism movement between habitat patches.
An ecosystem consists of all the living organisms in a given area along with the abiotic components they interact with, like air, water, soil and sunlight. The structure of an ecosystem includes the biological communities and distribution of organisms, as well as the quantity and distribution of non-living resources. The functions of an ecosystem include nutrient cycling through food chains and webs, energy flow, and processes like primary production and decomposition that allow the ecosystem to function as a self-sustaining unit.
This document provides an overview of ecosystems and ecology. It begins with definitions of ecology and ecosystem, explaining that an ecosystem is the basic unit of ecological study that includes all organisms in a given area interacting with the physical environment. It then discusses key components of ecosystems like abiotic and biotic factors, food chains and webs, trophic levels, and ecological pyramids. Productivity is also summarized, distinguishing between primary productivity by producers and secondary productivity by consumers. The document concludes with models of energy flow through ecosystems and the concept of ecological efficiency.
"Solving the climate crisis is within our grasp, but we need people like you to STAND UP AND ACT."
AL GORE
Founder and Chairman,
The Climate Reality Project
The document discusses the history and structure of ecosystems. It defines an ecosystem as a complex unit of living and non-living things that interact and exchange materials. Ecosystems have biotic components like producers, consumers, and decomposers, as well as abiotic components like soil, water, and nutrients. Producers use photosynthesis to convert sunlight into chemical energy, which consumers then use as food and decomposers break down dead remains, recycling nutrients for producers. Energy and matter flow through the ecosystem via these interactions and components.
This document discusses the scope of ecology, including applied ecology, forestry, rangeland management, fish farming, and wildlife management. Applied ecology involves understanding ecosystem needs, problems, and solutions to aid conservation efforts. Forestry is important for resources, habitat, and environmental benefits. Rangeland management maintains grasslands, soil, and acts as a natural mulch. Fish farming provides food and nutrition to meet the increasing demand for meat. Wildlife management is necessary to protect threatened and endangered species from extinction and maintain ecosystem balance.
The document discusses energy flow through an ecosystem. It explains that grass, frogs, snakes, grasshoppers and hawks interact through a food chain where grass is eaten by grasshoppers which are eaten by snakes or frogs which may then be eaten by hawks. It also defines producers as organisms like grass that can produce their own food, consumers as organisms that cannot produce their own food and eat other organisms, and decomposers as organisms like bacteria and fungi that break down waste and dead organisms.
There are four major types of ecosystems: grassland, forest, aquatic, and desert. Each ecosystem is defined by its biotic and abiotic factors. Biotic factors include living organisms, while abiotic factors include non-living elements like air, soil, water, and sunlight. Ecosystems are classified based on these factors and provide important functions such as purifying water, recycling nutrients, and supporting biodiversity.
The document summarizes and compares two ecosystems in Puerto Rico: Bosque Seco de Guánica and El Yunque National Forest. It describes the different forest areas within each ecosystem, including the types of trees and canopy layers. It also discusses the differences in rainfall, soil composition, and how each ecosystem has adapted. Finally, it provides details on some of the unique flora and fauna found in each forest and some environmental problems currently facing them.
Coniferous trees dominate coniferous forests. The wildlife is diverse and adapts to long, harsh winters and short, mild summers. Coniferous forests in Mexico are located in mountainous regions in the north and center of the country. Primary producers include mosses, grasses, ferns and coniferous trees, which support a variety of herbivores, omnivores, carnivores, and decomposers in the forest's food chain.
This document provides an introduction to the key concepts of ecology, including:
- Ecology is defined as the study of the interactions between organisms and their environment. It was coined by German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1869 from Greek roots meaning "house" and "study."
- Ecology examines the interrelationships between living things and non-living components at different organizational levels from individual species to entire biomes. Key areas of study include autecology, synecology, aquatic ecology, terrestrial ecology, and classifications based on the environment.
- Ecosystems are the functional units of ecology, containing all the living and non-living components that interact within a defined space. Major ecosystem types include
The document discusses different types of ecosystems including terrestrial, aquatic, and marine ecosystems. It describes various abiotic factors that influence ecosystems as well as different biotic communities found within ecosystems like mountains, forests, grasslands, soils, rivers, lakes and oceans. Examples of organisms that can be found in these different ecosystems are also provided. The document also discusses how biodiversity within ecosystems can be valued.
The document discusses the key components and dynamics of ecosystems. It describes how ecosystems have interacting abiotic and biotic factors that are connected by energy, nutrients, and minerals. Energy flows in one direction through ecosystems from the sun to producers to consumers, while nutrients and minerals circulate and recirculate between factors. The main dynamics of ecosystems include energy flow, primary and secondary production through food chains and webs, trophic levels, and biogeochemical cycles.
This document discusses ecosystems and their components. It defines an ecosystem as consisting of both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components that interact in a particular environment. It then describes different types of ecosystems like forest, grassland, aquatic, and artificial ecosystems. The key components of ecosystems discussed are producers, consumers, decomposers, and reducers. Energy flow through ecosystems is also summarized, along with the concepts of food chains, food webs, and ecological pyramids. Specific examples of aquatic, forest, and desert ecosystems are provided.
This document describes several types of marine ecosystems: estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps, rocky shores, sandy shores, barrier islands, and coral reefs. Estuaries are transition areas where fresh water from rivers mixes with salt water from the ocean, creating very nutrient-rich environments that support a high diversity of plants like eelgrass and cordgrass, and animals including blue crabs, fish, birds, and mammals. Coral reefs are structures built by corals in warm, sunlit, shallow ocean waters that provide habitat for numerous species.
This document provides an overview of marine and freshwater ecosystems. It discusses key abiotic factors such as temperature and salinity. It also describes different zones within marine ecosystems and different types of freshwater ecosystems. The main biotic components of aquatic ecosystems are explained as producers (autotrophs), consumers (heterotrophs), and decomposers (detritivores). Examples of each are provided.
The marine ecosystem along the coasts of Chubut, Santa Cruz, and Tierra del Fuego in Argentina is lush and diverse, with many green, red, and brown algae covering the seabed. It supports abundant marine flora and fauna like striped mussels, other mussel species, crabs, sardines, hake, sea bass, and provides habitat for many coastal birds and marine mammals. The productivity of the marine environment is high due to large concentrations of phytoplankton and zooplankton, making it a rich fishery, though diversity of fish species is lower than in other seas.
1. The document discusses various types of aquatic ecosystems including estuaries, mangrove swamps, coral reefs, rocky shores, sandy beaches, and barrier islands. It describes the key features and organisms found in each.
2. Coastal ecosystems like estuaries and mangrove swamps provide many important ecological services including habitat, nurseries for marine life, and protection from storms. They also have economic value through fisheries, recreation, and tourism.
3. Coral reefs have exceptionally high biodiversity but are very vulnerable to threats like bleaching from rising water temperatures, ocean acidification, pollution, and destructive fishing practices. Widespread damage to coral reefs could have serious ecological and economic
This document discusses various topics related to environmental science and ecology including food chains, food webs, and forest ecosystems. It defines food chains as a series of steps where organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten. Food webs show how different organisms are interconnected in an ecosystem. Ecological pyramids graphically represent trophic levels and show decreasing biomass at higher levels. Forest ecosystems support a variety of plant and animal life through processes like photosynthesis and decomposition. They help regulate climate and rainfall while providing habitat. The document provides details on different types of forests and their characteristic features.
A pond ecosystem includes all living organisms (biotic factors) like phytoplankton, zooplankton, larger invertebrates, fish, frogs, and turtles interacting with each other and their non-living (abiotic) environment of humus, oxygen, light, heat and minerals. Phytoplankton are primary producers at the bottom of the food chain, while zooplankton and larger invertebrates act as primary and secondary consumers, and vertebrates like fish and frogs are tertiary consumers. Together these biotic and abiotic components make up the balanced aquatic pond ecosystem.
The document discusses colonization and succession in ecosystems. It describes how pioneer species first colonize bare areas, changing the environment and allowing later successor species to establish themselves over time. This process of species replacement during ecological succession eventually forms a stable climax community. As examples, it outlines the process of succession in mangrove swamps and ponds, with different plant species colonizing at different stages as environmental conditions become more suitable.
The document defines key terms related to ecosystems, including that an ecosystem was first defined by A.G. Tansley as the basic functional unit of organisms interacting with each other and their environment. It provides examples of different ecosystem types, such as grasslands, forests, and oceans. Within ecosystems, biotic components include producers, consumers, and decomposers. Energy flows through ecosystems from producers to higher trophic levels, and nutrients cycle through ecosystems via processes like decomposition. Ecological pyramids illustrate the structure of ecosystems by trophic level.
An ecosystem consists of all the living organisms (biotic factors) in an area as well as non-living components (abiotic factors) interacting together. Key abiotic components include climate, soil, sun, water and air. Key biotic components include producers, consumers, and decomposers. Energy enters the ecosystem primarily from the sun and passes through food chains and food webs as organisms consume, and are consumed by, others. Decomposers break down dead organic matter and cycle nutrients back into the soil.
The document summarizes several marine ecosystems and the organisms found within them. It describes plankton as organisms that cannot swim against ocean currents, including photosynthetic phytoplankton like diatoms, dinoflagellates, and cyanobacteria, as well as zooplankton that eat other organisms. It also discusses nekton that can swim against currents. Several ecosystems are outlined, such as the rocky intertidal zone, estuaries, coral reefs, the open ocean, deep sea hydrothermal vents, and the challenges of life in each.
The document discusses different types of ecosystems. It describes three major classes of ecosystems: freshwater, terrestrial, and oceanic. Within terrestrial ecosystems, it outlines seven major biome types defined by factors like latitude, precipitation, and temperature. These biome types include tropical rainforests, savannas, deserts, temperate grasslands, deciduous forests, coniferous forests, and tundra. It also briefly outlines three ocean ecosystem types.
This document introduces the concepts of ecology, ecosystems, biotic and abiotic factors. It defines ecology as the study of relationships between living and non-living things in environments. An ecosystem includes all biotic factors such as plants, animals and microbes as well as abiotic factors like air, water and soil. Biotic factors interact with each other and abiotic factors in complex ways. The document also discusses biomes as large regional communities defined by climate and plant life, and provides examples of biomes and ecosystems.
MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS
1. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
2. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
Terrestrial ecosystems
A terrestrial ecosystem is an ecosystem found only on landforms.
Six primary terrestrial ecosystems exist:
tundra,
taiga,
temperate deciduous forest,
tropical rain forest,
grassland; and
desert.
The document discusses key concepts related to ecosystems and their functioning. It begins by defining an ecosystem as the functional unit where living organisms interact with each other and their physical environment. It then discusses various ecosystem components like species composition, stratification, productivity, decomposition, energy flow and nutrient cycling. The document further explains concepts like trophic levels, food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids. It also covers ecological succession and biogeochemical cycles of nitrogen and phosphorus.
An ecosystem is defined as a community of living organisms interacting with each other and their non-living physical and chemical environment. The key components of an ecosystem include producers (plants), consumers (herbivores, carnivores, omnivores), and decomposers. Energy and nutrients flow through ecosystems via food chains and food webs, which connect organisms as they consume other organisms for food. Ecological pyramids illustrate the biomass, numbers, and energy at each trophic level of a food chain or food web, with higher trophic levels generally containing less biomass, fewer numbers, and less available energy due to energy losses between trophic levels.
The document discusses key concepts in ecosystems including abiotic and biotic factors, trophic levels, food chains and webs, and energy pyramids. It explains that abiotic factors are non-living elements that affect organisms, while biotic factors are living components. It outlines the trophic levels of primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, and decomposers. Food chains represent the transfer of energy between trophic levels, while food webs show a more complex network of interactions. Energy and biomass pyramids illustrate how the amount of energy and matter decreases at higher trophic levels due to inefficiencies in energy transfer between levels.
This document discusses key concepts in plant ecology, including ecosystems, food chains, and ecological pyramids. It defines ecosystems as consisting of biotic and abiotic components, with biotic components including producers, consumers, and decomposers. Producers are autotrophs like plants that use photosynthesis to produce food. Consumers, including herbivores and carnivores, feed on other organisms and transfer energy. Decomposers break down dead organic matter. Food chains represent the transfer of energy as organisms consume each other. Ecological pyramids graphically depict the number, biomass, and energy at each trophic level, with the base representing producers and higher levels representing consumers.
The document discusses ecosystems, including their structure, functions, and examples. It defines an ecosystem as a natural unit consisting of living and non-living components that interact. The key components are producers, consumers, and decomposers. Food chains and webs show energy transfer between trophic levels, which is typically only 10% efficient. Ecosystems include both natural and man-made examples like forests, grasslands, ponds, oceans, and agricultural fields. Ecological pyramids illustrate the biomass and numbers at each trophic level. Succession over time leads to a stable climax community.
An ecosystem consists of a community of organisms and their physical environment. Energy and matter are conserved as they cycle through ecosystems. Energy flows through an ecosystem from light to heat, while matter is recycled. Primary producers, like plants, capture energy through photosynthesis and provide the base of the food web. As organisms consume other organisms, energy is transferred between trophic levels, though most energy is lost at each level. Decomposition returns nutrients to the environment by decomposers breaking down dead organic matter.
Ecosystem functioning: food webs and trophicl evels.pptSumant Saini
The document discusses trophic levels, food chains, and energy transfer through ecosystems. It defines key terms like trophic levels, producers, consumers, and explains how energy flows from producers to different consumer levels in a food chain. Energy is lost at each transfer, which is why there are generally fewer organisms at higher trophic levels. This relationship is depicted by ecological pyramids that show the decrease in energy and biomass from the base to the top of the pyramid.
This document summarizes key concepts about ecosystems, including:
1) Ecology studies interactions between living things and their environment at different levels of organization, from organisms to ecosystems. Biotic factors are living parts of the environment like plants and animals, while abiotic factors are non-living like sunlight, temperature, and wind.
2) Energy enters ecosystems through producers, mostly plants that use photosynthesis, and flows through food chains of consumers like herbivores, carnivores, and decomposers. Only about 10% of energy is transferred at each trophic level with 90% lost as heat.
3) Matter cycles through ecosystems in biogeochemical cycles like the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles which move
The document discusses key concepts in ecology including biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, individual species, abiotic and biotic factors, energy flow, nutrient cycles, and organism interactions. It explains that for an ecosystem to be stable, there must be a constant supply of energy, recycling of materials, and biodiversity. Energy and nutrients are transferred between producers, consumers, and decomposers through food chains, food webs, and nutrient cycles like carbon, water, and nitrogen. Organisms interact through relationships like competition, commensalism, mutualism, parasitism, and niche occupation.
An ecosystem is a complex system composed of biotic and abiotic components that interact with each other. Biotic components include producers, consumers, and decomposers. Producers use photosynthesis to produce organic matter. Consumers feed on producers or other consumers. Decomposers break down dead organic matter and return nutrients to the soil. Energy and biomass decrease at each trophic level as only about 10% is transferred between levels due to energy loss. Ecosystems can be modeled using ecological pyramids which show decreasing biomass and energy at higher trophic levels.
The document defines key terms related to ecology, including environment, biosphere, ecosystem, habitat, trophic levels, food chains, food webs, and ecological pyramids. It explains that trophic levels represent an organism's position in a food chain, with producers at the base and tertiary consumers at the top. Food webs show how multiple intersecting food chains are interconnected in nature. Ecological pyramids graphically represent numbers, biomass, and energy at different trophic levels, with pyramids of biomass and energy always decreasing upwards and pyramids of numbers varying in shape.
Primary producers like plants and algae act as the gateway for energy to enter ecosystems through photosynthesis. Productivity refers to the rate at which energy is added to organisms' bodies as biomass. Gross productivity is the overall energy capture rate, while net productivity is lower after accounting for energy lost to organism respiration and metabolism. Ecological pyramids visually represent energy flow and biomass accumulation across trophic levels, and typically narrow with each higher level due to inefficient energy transfer between levels.
The document describes the structure of an equatorial rainforest ecosystem. It consists of four main layers - the forest floor/shrub layer, understory layer, canopy layer, and emergent layer. Each layer contains different plant and animal species adapted to the specific light and moisture conditions in that stratum, with the densest vegetation and most biodiversity found in the canopy layer that supports most wildlife. Together these interacting layers form a rich and complex rainforest ecosystem.
The document provides information about ecosystems and ecology. It begins with definitions of ecosystems as self-regulating groups of interacting species and their environment, and ecology as the study of organism interactions and relationships. It then describes the key components and structure of ecosystems, including abiotic (physical and chemical) and biotic factors. Biotic components include producers (photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs), consumers (herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, detritivores), and decomposers. The document also discusses energy flow and trophic levels in food chains and food webs in ecosystems.
This document summarizes key concepts in ecology, including energy flow and nutrient cycling within ecosystems. It discusses how photosynthesis by autotrophs fixes energy from the sun, which is then transferred through food chains and webs to heterotrophs in a trophic pyramid. Most energy is lost at each transfer, limiting food chain length. Decomposition recycles nutrients, which are taken up by producers to continue ecosystem functioning.
Ecology is the scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment. The biosphere consists of all life on Earth and the areas where life exists. Ecology studies different levels of organization from populations and communities to ecosystems and biomes. Energy flows through ecosystems in food chains from primary producers like plants through various consumer levels. Nutrients are recycled through decomposition and enter the ecosystem again.
The document defines key terms related to ecology, including habitat, trophic levels, food chains, food webs, and ecological pyramids. It explains that a habitat is the environment where an organism lives, trophic levels refer to an organism's position in a food chain, and food chains and webs show feeding relationships between organisms. Ecological pyramids graphically represent biomass, numbers of organisms, and energy at different trophic levels, with producers at the base and higher-level consumers at the top. Biomass and numbers pyramids can be upright, inverted, or partially upright, while energy pyramids are always upright due to energy loss between trophic levels.
I apologize, upon reviewing the document again I do not see any questions asked that I can provide a summary for. The document appears to only contain information about ecosystems and does not include any explicit questions.
Similar to B.tech. i es unit 2 environment ecology and ecosystem (20)
Rai University provides high quality education for MSc, Law, Mechanical Engineering, BBA, MSc, Computer Science, Microbiology, Hospital Management, Health Management and IT Engineering.
The document discusses various types of retailers including specialty stores, department stores, supermarkets, convenience stores, and discount stores. It then covers marketing decisions for retailers related to target markets, product assortment, store services, pricing, promotion, and store location. The document also discusses wholesaling, including the functions of wholesalers, types of wholesalers, and marketing decisions faced by wholesalers.
This document discusses marketing channels and channel management. It defines marketing channels as sets of interdependent organizations that make a product available for use. Channels perform important functions like information gathering, stimulating purchases, negotiating prices, ordering, financing inventory, storage, and payment. Channel design considers customer expectations, objectives, constraints, alternatives that are evaluated. Channel management includes selecting, training, motivating, and evaluating channel members. Channels are dynamic and can involve vertical, horizontal, and multi-channel systems. Conflicts between channels must be managed to balance cooperation and competition.
The document discusses integrated marketing communication and its various elements. It defines integrated marketing communication as combining different communication modes like advertising, sales promotion, public relations, personal selling, and direct marketing to provide a complete communication portfolio to audiences. It also discusses the communication process and how each element of the marketing mix communicates to customers. The document provides details on the key components of an integrated marketing communication mix and how it can be used to build brand equity.
Pricing is a key element in determining the profitability and success of a business. The price must be set correctly - if too high, demand may decrease and the product may be priced out of the market, but if too low, revenue may not cover costs. Pricing strategies should consider the product lifecycle stage, costs, competitors, and demand factors. Common pricing methods include penetration pricing for new products, market skimming for premium products, value pricing based on perceived worth, and cost-plus pricing which adds a markup to costs. Price affects demand through price elasticity, with elastic demand more sensitive to price changes.
The document discusses various aspects of branding such as definitions of a brand, brand positioning, brand name selection, brand sponsorship, brand development strategies like line extensions and brand extensions, challenges in branding, importance of packaging, labeling, and universal product codes. It provides examples of well-known brands and analyzes their branding strategies. The key points covered are creating emotional value for customers, building relationships and loyalty, using brands to project aspirational lifestyles and values to command premium prices.
This document outlines the key stages in the new product development (NPD) process. It begins with generating ideas for new products, which can come from internal or external sources. Ideas are then screened using criteria like market size and development costs. Successful concepts are developed and test marketed to customers. If testing goes well, the product proceeds to commercialization with a full market launch. The NPD process helps companies focus their resources on projects most likely to be rewarding and brings new products to market more quickly. It describes common challenges in NPD like defining specifications and managing resources and timelines, and how to overcome them through planning and cross-functional involvement.
A product is an item offered for sale that can be physical or virtual. It has a life cycle and may need to be adapted over time to remain relevant. A product needs to serve a purpose, function well, and be effectively communicated to users. It also requires a name to help it stand out.
A product hierarchy has multiple levels from core needs down to specific items. These include the need, product family, class, line, type, and item or stock keeping unit.
Products go through a life cycle with stages of development, introduction, growth, maturity, and decline. Marketing strategies must adapt to each stage such as heavy promotion and price changes in introduction and maturity.
This document discusses barriers between marketing researchers and managerial decision makers. It identifies three types of barriers: behavioral, process, and organizational. Specific behavioral barriers discussed include confirmatory bias, the difficulty balancing creativity and data, and the newcomer syndrome. Process barriers include unsuccessful problem definition and research rigidity. Organizational barriers include misuse of information asymmetries. The document also discusses ethical issues in marketing research such as deceptive practices, invasion of privacy, and breaches of confidentiality.
The document discusses best practices for organizing, writing, and presenting a marketing research report. It provides guidance on structuring the report with appropriate headings, formatting the introduction and conclusion/recommendation sections, effectively utilizing visuals like tables and graphs, and tips for an ethical and impactful oral presentation of the findings. The goal is to clearly communicate the research results and insights to the client to inform their decision-making.
This document discusses marketing research and its key steps and methods. Marketing research involves collecting, analyzing and communicating information to make informed marketing decisions. There are 5 key steps in marketing research: 1) define the problem, 2) collect data, 3) analyze and interpret data, 4) reach a conclusion, 5) implement the research. Common data collection methods include interviews, surveys, observations, and experiments. The data is then analyzed using statistical techniques like frequency, percentages, and means to interpret the findings and their implications for marketing decisions.
Bdft ii, tmt, unit-iii, dyeing & types of dyeing,Rai University
Dyeing is a method of imparting color to textiles by applying dyes. There are two major types of dyes - natural dyes extracted from plants/animals/minerals and synthetic dyes made in a laboratory. Dyes can be applied at different stages of textile production from fibers to yarns to fabrics to finished garments. Common dyeing methods include stock dyeing, yarn dyeing, piece dyeing, and garment dyeing. Proper dye and method selection are needed for good colorfastness.
Bsc agri 2 pae u-4.4 publicrevenue-presentation-130208082149-phpapp02Rai University
The government requires public revenue to fund its political, social, and economic activities. There are three main sources of public revenue: tax revenue, non-tax revenue, and capital receipts. Tax revenue is collected through direct taxes like income tax, which are paid directly to the government, and indirect taxes like sales tax, where the burden can be shifted to other parties. Non-tax revenue sources include profits from public enterprises, railways, postal services, and the Reserve Bank of India. While taxes provide wide coverage and influence production, they can also reduce incentives to work and increase inequality.
Public expenditure has increasingly grown over time to fulfill three main roles: protecting society, protecting individuals, and funding public works. The growth can be attributed to several causes like increased income, welfare state ideology, effects of war, increased resources and ability to finance expenditures, inflation, and effects of democracy, socialism, and development. There are also canons that govern public spending like benefits, economy, and approval by authorities. The effects of public expenditure include impacts on consumption, production through efficiency, incentives and allocation, and distribution of resources.
Public finance involves the taxing and spending activities of government. It focuses on the microeconomic functions of government and examines taxes and spending. Government ideology can view the community or individual as most important. In the US, the federal government has more spending flexibility than states. Government spending has increased significantly as a percentage of GDP from 1929 to 2001. Major items of federal spending have shifted from defense to entitlements like Social Security and Medicare. Revenues mainly come from individual income taxes, payroll taxes, and corporate taxes at the federal level and property, sales, and income taxes at the state and local levels.
This document provides an overview of public finance. It defines public finance as the study of how governments raise money through taxes and spending, and how these activities affect the economy. It discusses why public finance is needed to provide public goods and services, redistribute wealth, and correct issues like pollution. The key aspects of public finance covered are government spending, revenue sources like income taxes, and how fiscal policy around spending and taxation can influence economic performance.
The document discusses the classical theory of inflation and how it relates to money supply. It states that inflation is defined as a rise in the overall price level in an economy. The quantity theory of money explains that inflation is primarily caused by increases in the money supply as controlled by the central bank. When the money supply grows faster than the amount of goods and services, it leads to too much money chasing too few goods and a rise in prices, or inflation. The document also notes that hyperinflation, which is a very high rate of inflation, can occur when governments print too much money to fund spending.
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.2 introduction to macro economicsRai University
This document provides an introduction to macroeconomics. It defines macroeconomics as the study of national economies and the policies that governments use to affect economic performance. It discusses key issues macroeconomists address such as economic growth, business cycles, unemployment, inflation, international trade, and macroeconomic policies. It also outlines different macroeconomic theories including classical, Keynesian, and unified approaches.
Market structure identifies how a market is composed in terms of the number of firms, nature of products, degree of monopoly power, and barriers to entry. Markets range from perfect competition to pure monopoly based on imperfections. The level of competition affects consumer benefits and firm behavior. While models simplify reality, they provide benchmarks to analyze real world situations, where regulation may influence firm actions.
This document discusses the concept of perfect competition in economics. It defines perfect competition as a market with many small firms, identical products, free entry and exit of firms, and complete information. The document outlines the key features of perfect competition including: a large number of buyers and sellers, homogeneous products, no barriers to entry or exit, and profit maximization by firms. It also discusses the short run and long run equilibrium of a perfectly competitive firm, including cases where firms experience super normal profits, normal profits, or losses.
2. Ecology and Ecosystems
Ecology is the scientific study of relations that living
organisms have with respect to each other and their
natural environment.
Under ecology, we study various ecosystems which are a
part of the biosphere.
An ecosystem includes all the organisms and the nonliving
environment that are found in a particular place.
4. Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is the
observed process of change in
the species structure of an
ecological community over
time.
Ecological succession occurs
when the conditions of an
environment suddenly and
drastically change. 2
5. Trophic Levels
• A tropic level is the position occupied
by an organism in a food chain.
Trophic levels can be analyzed on an
energy pyramid.
• Producers are found at the base of
the pyramid and compromise the first
trophic level.
• Primary consumers make up the
second trophic level.
• Secondary consumers make up the
third trophic level.
• Finally tertiary consumers make up
the top trophic level.
3
6. Food Chain
A food chain shows the feeding relationship between
different living things in a particular habitat.
Food chains show how energy is passed from the sun to
producers, from producers to consumers, and from
consumers to decomposers.
In any ecosystem, many food chains overlap. When this
happens, the food chain forms a food web.
7. Grazing Food Chain
The "grazing" food chain includes the producers
and consumers that cycle energy from living
plants. The "detritus" food chain cycles energy
from non-living remains of both plants and
animals (also called detritus).
The "grazing" food chain has a number of steps
that start with the producers, or the plants,
and flows through a series of levels of consumers.
At each step only about 10% of the energy is
passed up through the chain. The rest is passed
back into the atmosphere as heat through
breathing and decomposition.
4
8. In the first step plants convert the sun’s energy to chemical energy through a
process called photosynthesis. The chemical energy is stored both as food and
as structural elements in the plant.
The next step involves the primary consumers, animals that eat only plants.
At step three are the secondary consumers, also called predators; these
animals eat primary consumers.
At step four are the tertiary consumers that eat secondary consumers, and
sometimes primary consumers as well
9. Detritus food chain
The "detritus" food chain cycles energy from non-
living remains of both plants and animals (also called
detritus).
The "detritus" food chain is a system where the energy produced by the breakdown of dead plant and
animal matter is cycled into the "grazing" food chain.
Detritus is organic matter formed by decaying animal or plant tissue, or fecal matter.
Detritus eaters (or detritivores) such as insects, worms and other small organisms feed on dead plants,
waste products from animals and dead animals.
Decomposers are fungal or bacterial organisms that work within the dead material to help break it down,
activating decay and decomposition.
This important part of the ecosystem takes the last of the energy that was originally absorbed by the plants
and returns it to the soil.
5
10. Characteristics of Detritus Food Chain
a)Primary source of energy is dead organic matter called 'detritus'
which are fallen leaves, plant parts or dead animal bodies.
b) Primary consumers are 'detritivores' including protozoans,
bacteria, fungi, etc which feed upon the detritus saprophytically.
c) Detritivores are in turn eaten by secondary consumers such as
insect larvae, nematodes, etc.
d) Detritus food chains are generally shorter than grazing food chains
e) In nature, detritus food chains are vital as the dead organic matter
of grazing food chain is acted upon by the detritivores to recycle the
inorganic elements into the ecosystem.
12. Food Web
Food Webs are Food Chains that
intersect each other. Food webs are
what really happens in nature.
A predator from one food chain may
be linked to the prey of another food
chain
Several food chains linked together
7
14. An ecological pyramid is a graphical
representation designed to show…….
the number of organisms,
energy relationships, and
biomass of an ecosystem.
They are also called Eltonian pyramids after Charles
Elton, who developed the concept of ecological
pyramids.
Charles Elton (1927) developed the concept of ecological
pyramids who noted that "…the animals at the base
of a food chain are relatively abundant while those at
the end are relatively few in number…"
8
15. Producer organisms (usually green plants) form the base
of the pyramid,
With succeeding levels above representing the different
trophic levels (respective position of the organisms
within ecological food chains).
Succeeding levels in the pyramid represent the
dependence of the organisms at a given level on the
organisms at lower level.
16. There are three types of pyramids:
of numbers, of biomass, and of energy.
9
17. Pyramid of Biomass
Biomass is (is the mass of living biological organisms in a given area
or ecosystem at a given time) renewable organic (living) material.
A pyramid of biomass is a representation of the amount of energy
contained in biomass, at different trophic levels for a particular time.
It is measured in grams per meter2, or calories per meter2. This
demonstrates the amount of matter lost between trophic levels.
Each level is dependent on its lower level for energy, hence the lower
level determines how much energy will be available to the upper
level. Also, energy is lost in transfer so the amount of energy is less
higher up the pyramid.
18. There are two types of biomass pyramids: upright
and inverted.
An upright pyramid is one where the combined
weight of producers is larger than the combined
weight of consumers. An example is a forest
ecosystem.
An inverted pyramid is one where the combined
weight of producers is smaller than the combined
weight of consumers. An example is an aquatic
ecosystem.
20. Pyramid of Numbers
The pyramid of numbers represents the number of organisms in each trophic level.
This pyramid consists of a plot of relationships between the number herbivores
(primary consumers), first level carnivore (secondary consumers), second level
carnivore (tertiary consumers) and so forth. This shape varies from ecosystem to
ecosystem because the number of organisms at each level is variable
Upright, partly upright and inverted are the three types of pyramids of numbers.
An aquatic ecosystem is an example of upright pyramid where the number of
organisms becomes fewer and fewer higher up in the pyramid.
A forest ecosystem is an example of a partially upright pyramid, as fewer
producers support more primary consumers, but there are less secondary and
tertiary consumers.
An inverted pyramid of numbers is one where the number of organisms depending
on the lower levels grows closer toward the apex. A parasitic food chain is an
example.
23. Pyramid of Energy
The pyramid of energy represents the total amount of energy
consumed by each trophic level. An energy pyramid is always
upright as the total amount of energy available for utilization
in the layers above is less than the energy available in the lower
levels. This happens because during energy transfer from lower
to higher levels, some energy is always lost.
25. Functions of Natural Ecosystem
Air pollution are tapped by leaves of tree and
convert into harmless compounds
Waste water gets filtrated through the natural
soil and make drinkable
27. Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem is a
terrestrial unit of living
organisms.
All interacting among
themselves and with the
environment (soil, climate,
water and light) in which
they live. 14
28. Types Of Forest Ecosystems
Tropical Rain Forest
( Average rain fall: <150cm/year)
Temp: 18oC
Warmed , humid, high diversity of
animal, plant, insects
Tropical Deciduous Forest
(Rain fall: 100-120cm/yr)
Climate is not evenly distributed
29. Temperate Deciduous
(cold climate, annual temp: 7-15oC)
Summer is very hot and winter is very cold
Tall decidous tree
Boreal Forest/TIAGA/CONIFEROUS
Climate is very cold
Rainfall: 100mm to 350 mm
Temperate Rain forest
Very cold
Winter rain fall
Summer is very hot and Dry
30. Functions Forest Ecosystems
Enhance the water resources in both quality
and quantity
Hydrological cycle depend on the forest
ecosystem
Forest gives shelter to wildlife and fish
Considered as a pathway for exchange and
regulation of atmospheric gases, water and trace
elements
33. Types Of Grassland
Ecosystem
Tropical and Savannas
grasslands
Tropical and subtropical grasslands,
savannas, and shrublands are
a grassland terrestrial biome located
in semi-arid to semi-
humid climate regions
of subtropical and tropical latitudes.
Tropical grasslands include the savanna
usually associated with Africa, and
savanna-type grasslands found in India,
Australia, Nepal and the Americas.
16
34. Temperate grasslands
Temperature: warm to hot season (often with a cold to
freezing season in winter)
Soil: fertile with rich nutrients and minerals
Plants: grass; trees or shrubs in savanna and shrubland
Animals: large, grazing mammals; birds; reptiles
Rain fall: 25-60cm/yr
Although large areas have now been converted to
agriculture, in the past temperate grasslands were
home to herds of large grazing animals such as bison,
deer or kangaroos.
North America, the steppes of Russia and the pampas
of Argentina.
17
35. Flooded Grass land
Flooded grasslands and savannas is a
terrestrial biome.
Its component ecoregions are generally
located at subtropical
and tropical latitudes, which
are flooded seasonally or year-round.
A common term is swamp.
Characteristics
Flooded grasslands are characterized by:
very wet to saturated soil moisture
content in nutrient rich soils.
in temperate—warm to tropical—hot
climates.
They are found as grasslands, savannas,
and wetlands.
18
36. Tundra Biome
Tundra is the coldest of all the biomes.
Tundra comes from the Spanish word
tunturia, meaning treeless plain.
It is noted for its frost-molded
landscapes, extremely low
temperatures, little precipitation, poor
nutrients, and short growing seasons.
The two major nutrients are nitrogen
and phosphorus. Nitrogen is created by
biological fixation, and phosphorus is
created by precipitation.
Tundra is separated into two types:
arctic tundra and alpine tundra.
characteristics
Extremely cold climate
Low biotic diversity
Simple vegetation structure
Short season of growth and reproduction
Energy and nutrients in the form of dead
organic material
19
37. Arctic
Arctic tundra is located in the northern hemisphere, encircling the north pole
and extending south to the coniferous forests of the taiga.
The arctic is known for its cold, desert-like conditions.
The growing season ranges from 50 to 60 days.
The average winter temperature is -34° C (-30° F), but the average summer
temperature is 3-12° C (37-54° F) which enables this biome to sustain life.
Rainfall may vary in different regions of the arctic. Yearly precipitation,
including melting snow, is 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 inches). Soil is formed slowly.
Alpine
Alpine tundra is located on mountains throughout the world at high altitude
where trees cannot grow. The growing season is approximately 180 days
Mammals: pikas, marmots, mountain goats, sheep, elk
Birds: grouselike birds
Insects: springtails, beetles, grasshoppers, butterflies
38. Montane
High-altitude grasslands located on high mountain
ranges around the world, like the Páramo
of the Andes Mountains. They are part of the
montane grasslands and shrublands biome and
also constitute tundra.
Desert and xeric
Also called desert grasslands, this is
composed of sparse grassland ecoregions
located in the deserts and xeric shrublands
biome
20
39. Desert Ecosystem
A desert ecosystem exists where
there is little rainfall and the
climate is extreme in harshness.
It occupies about 17% of the
earth’s surface.
21
40. Types Of Desert Ecosystem
Temperate Deserts: Sahara in Africa, Thar
in Rajasthan
Tropical Deserts: Mojave in south
California
Cold Deserts: Gobi desert in China
41. Components of desert
Ecosystem
A biotic components: Nutrition's present in the soil and aerial
environment
Biotic Components:
Producers: There are shrubs, Grasses and few trees. Some
time few cacti
Consumers: Reptiles, Insects, Birds mammals and camels
Decomposers: There are very few, as due to poor vegetation
the amount of dead organic matter is less.
There are few fungi and most of them are thermophlic
43. Aquatic Ecosystem
It is an ecosystem located in
a water bodies.
The two main types of
aquatic ecosystems are
marine ecosystems and
freshwater ecosystems. 23
44. Types Of Aquatic Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
1. Pond ecosystem
2. Lake ecosystem
3. Stream
4. Riverine Ecosystem
5. Fresh water marshes ecosystem
45. On the basis of water flow, fresh water
ecosystem classified into two
- Lentic ecosystem (Standing water
bodies)
- Lotic ecosystem (Running or flowing
water bodies)
46. LOTIC ECOSYSTEMS
Lotic ecosystem may be perennial or seasonal
Perennials occasionally subjected to floods which
cause damage to the surrounding areas
Lotic series distinguished by continued flow of water in
one direction
Lotic systems are richer in oxygen and nutrients than
lentic systems
Egs:Spring,Stream or river ecosystems
47. LENTIC ECOSYSTEM
It may be perennial or seasonal
Oxygen content in the surface water to a depth of 3-
5 meters is enough to support life
In deeper levels oxygen is less and biological
activities decreases
In bottom levels anaerobic conditions prevail and
organisms that can thrive under such conditions are
found at this depth
Egs: Lake,Pond,Swamp,Reservoirs etc
49. POND ECOSYSTEM
It is a simplest fresh water aquatic ecosystem
It is a small body of standing shallow water
It may receive enough water during rainy season
It is a self sufficient & self regulatory ecosystem
50. Life span of small seasonal ponds ranges from a
few weeks or months
Life span of larger ponds are several hundred
years
Pond water contain a mixture of living organisms,
both plants & animals, and inorganic and organic
components.
51. LAKE ECOSYSTEM
Big and natural fresh water bodies with standing
water
Functions like a giant permanent pond
Lakes are formed when precipitation run-off or
ground water seepage fills up depressions in the
land formed by geological changes.
52. ZONATION
A large lake has four
zones(depending on the depth).They
are:
- LITTORAL: upper zone ,shallow
water near the shore of lake.
-LIMNETIC: open water away from
the shore of lake.
-PROFOUNDAL:deep water,too
dark,not found plants or algae.
-BENTHIC: bottom of the lake.
25
53. Types of Lake
Artificial lake: Due to construction
Obligotrophic lake: Low nutrition concentration
Masotrphic: Moderate Nutrition
Eutrophic: More amount of Nutrition : Dal Lake
Dystrophic lake: Brown water with low pH and humic
acid
Desert salt lake: High concentration of Salts: Sambhar
lake Rajasthan
Volcanic lake: It occures by volcano: Japan
Meromictic lake : Rich in salt
54. RIVER AND STREAM ECOSYSTEM
They are flowing fresh water bodies.
Flowing water follows distinct “channels”.
Small channels – STREAMS
Large channels – RIVERS
Plants and animals live in streams and rivers
depend upon the movement and speed of the
water.
55.
56.
57. FRESHWATER MARSHES
ECOSYSTEM
It tend to be naturally fertile ecosystem.
It is valuable in maintaining water tables in
adjacent ecosystems.
Periodic fluctuations in water levels resulting
from seasonal and annual rainfall variation often
accomplishes tidal like actions in terms of
maintaining long range stability and fertility.
58. Marine Ecosystem
70% world cover by the water and 97% of this
water is available in oceans and Seas.
They play key role in survival of 2,50,000 species
Oceans are major sinks of CO2 and play
important role in Carbon cycle, Hydrological
cycle
Major ocean: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic
Pacific: Largest and cover 1/3 part of Earth
59. Coastal Zone: Relatively warmer, Nutrition rich shallow water
with sunlight and high production
Open Sea: Deeper part of ocean and away from submerged
part of Continent is called continental shelf.
Euphotic zone: Received Enough light
Bathyal Zone: Dim light
Abyssal Zone: 1.5 to 5 km deep dark zone. No solar energy
26
60. Components of marine
ecosystem
Abiotic Components: Salt concentration in open
sea is usually 3.5 % while dominant ions are
sodium, chloride, sulpher magnasium and calcium
Biotic components:
Producers: phytoplanktons : macro and micro algae,
cynobacteria
Consumers: Herbivorous and Carnivores and top
carnivorous
Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi
62. Biogeochemical Cycles
describe the flow of essential elementsessential elements from the environment through living
organisms and back into the environment.
The biogeochemical cycle is the continuous flow of elements and compounds
between organisms and the earth
63. Types of cycles
Hydrological cycle: deal with the interchange of
water with organisms and environment
Gaseous cycle: Deal with inter change with gases
Sedimentary cycle: Deals with SO4 and PO4 cycle
and concern with the interchange of nutrition and
minerals
64. Elemental Cycles
H, O, and C make up > 99 % of the Earth’s biomass
N, Ca, K, Mg, S, and P are significant nutrients
Cycling of C, O, N, P, and S are discussed in this
chapter
65. Concepts in Biogeo. Cycles
Reservoir - where material or mass is stored
Flux: rate of flow of material
Steady state: inflow = outflow
Dynamic state: fluxes are reservoirs are changing
with time
Residence time: length of time a chemical stays in a
reservoir
Feedback: positive and negative
66. Hydrological cycle
1. Reservoir – oceans, air (as water vapor), groundwater, lakes and
glaciers; evaporation, wind and precipitation (rain) move water from
oceans to land.
2. Assimilation – plants absorb water from the ground, animals drink
water or eat other organisms which are composed mostly of water.
3. Release – plants transpire, animals breathe and expel liquid wastes.
67. Steps
Evaporation and transpiration
Condensation and formation of cloud: Rising air current all the vapour
up into the atmosphere cool formation of cloud cloud is made
up of droplet of water
Precipitation: Snow or rain fall
Run off and collection of under ground water
Infiltration and percolation
69. Human Impact
Pollution of water
Reduces the vegetation cover increases the
surface ran off decreases the percolation
Global warming
Heavy deforestation reduces the transpiration
loss of water through plants and trees
70. Carbon cycle
Earth atmosphere contains 0.03% of CO2
CO2 is the basic source of carbon and
constitutes of all organic material
It found in caves ands mines and also evolves
from volcanoes
71. Reservoirs of Carbon
Carbon is found in all four spheres
Biosphere - organic matter
Atmosphere - CO2, CH4
Hydrosphere - H2CO3 ,HCO3
-
, CO3
=
Lithosphere - CaCO3 , coal, oil, and gas
Processes: photosynthesis, formation of sediments, weathering,
combustion, plate tectonics
Decay of organic material
72. Carbon CycleCarbon Cycle
(carbon is required for building organic compounds)
1. Reservoir – atmosphere (as CO2), fossil fuels (oil, coal),
durable organic materials (for example:
cellulose).
2. Assimilation – plants use CO2 in photosynthesis; animals
consume plants.
3. Release – plants and animals release CO2 through
respiration and decomposition; CO2 is released
as wood and fossil fuels are burned.
74. Human Interference
Human-induced processes
Extraction and combustion of fossil fuels (speeds up
the medium-term cycling)
Cement manufacturing
Deforestation (biomass burning)
All of these processes release CO2 into the
atmosphere and affect the natural cycling of carbon
75. Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is an essential constituent of animals and
plants.
Green plant combined with Nitrogen and
carbohydrates to make proteins and Nucleic acid
78 %
Not directly used most form of life
Taken by Process called nitrogen fixation
76. Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle
(Nitrogen is required for the manufacture of
amino acids and nucleic acids)
1. Reservoir – atmosphere (as N2); soil (as NH4
+
or
ammonium, NH3 or ammonia, N02
-
or
nitrite, N03
-
or nitrate
77. Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle
2. Assimilation – plants absorb nitrogen as either
NH4
+
or as N03
-
, animals obtain nitrogen
by eating plants and other animals. The
stages in the assimilation of nitrogen
are as follows:
84. Human Impact
Harvesting of timber
Automobile and industrial exhaust
Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with
the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce
acids.
NO2 + OH· → HNO3
Eutrophication
85. Oxygen Cycle
Essential for aerobic life
Closely linked to carbon cycle
Very large reservoir (21% of gas in atm.), not susceptible to human
interference
Also, not a greenhouse gas
Reservoirs: atmosphere, surface organic material (biosphere), and buried
organic matter (lithosphere)
86. Oxygen Cycle
Processes
Photosynthesis/ respiration: short-term cycle; balanced on land;
excess O2 in ocean -phytoplanktons
Mineral oxidation, weathering, burial - removes O2 from
atmosphere
Combustion or weathering of organic matter - removes O2 from
atmosphere
Atmosphere => marine biota => sediments => rocks =>
atmosphere (fig )
89. Phosphorus CyclePhosphorus Cycle
(Phosphorus is required for the manufacture
of ATP and all nucleic acids)
1. Reservoir – erosion transfers phosphorus to water and soil;
sediments and rocks that accumulate on ocean
floors return to the surface as a result of uplifting by
geological processes
2. Assimilation – plants absorb inorganic PO4
3-
(phosphate)from
soils; animals obtain organic phosphorus when they
plants and other animals
3. Release – plants and animals release phosphorus when they
decompose; animals excrete phosphorus in their
waste products
90. Phosphorus CyclePhosphorus Cycle
1. Reservoir – erosion transfers
phosphorus to water and soil;
sediments and rocks that
accumulate on ocean floors return
to the surface as a result of uplifting
by geological processes
2. Assimilation – plants absorb
inorganic PO4
3-
(phosphate)from
soils; animals obtain organic
phosphorus when they plants and
other animals
3. Release – plants and animals
release phosphorus when they
decompose; animals excrete
phosphorus in their waste products
33
91. Biogeochemical cycles of other minerals,
such as calcium and magnesium, are
similar to the phosphorus cycle.