1. There are several differences between exotoxins and endotoxins as virulence factors produced by bacteria. Exotoxins are heat-labile proteins that are released from bacteria, while endotoxins are heat-stable lipopolysaccharides that remain part of the bacterial cell wall. Exotoxins have specific tissue targets and actions, while endotoxins cause non-specific effects.
2. A nosocomial infection refers to a hospital-acquired infection obtained from a healthcare setting.
3. An epidemic occurs when an infectious disease spreads rapidly among many individuals in a community or region. An endemic disease
The document discusses infection control principles including microorganisms, pathogens, infection transmission, and the nurse's role in controlling infections. It describes the chain of infection which involves an infectious agent, reservoir, portal of exit, mode of transmission, portal of entry, and susceptible host. Breaking the chain of infection is key to preventing the spread of disease. Nurses play an important role in controlling infections through proper hygiene, asepsis, and following universal precautions.
Topic- Infection- Types, Source and Spread by Chhavi SainiChhavi Saini
The document discusses infection, including its definition, types, causes, sources, and modes of transmission. It defines infection as the invasion and multiplication of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites within the body. There are several types of infections including primary, secondary, hospital-acquired, and latent infections. Infections can be caused by a variety of microbes including viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites. Sources of infection are either endogenous from inside the body or exogenous from outside sources. Modes of transmission include direct or indirect contact, inhalation, ingestion, insects, congenitally from mother to fetus, and iatrogenically during medical procedures.
This PPT contains the source, mode and factors causing infections in humans.
RESERVOIRS AND SOURCES OF INFECTION,
MODE OF TRANSMISSION, SUSCEPTIBLE HOST
Depending on the duration of carriage, carriers are classified as :
temporary carrier, chronic carrier
types of vectors:
mechanical vector, biological vector,
mode of transmission of infection-
vertical transmissiom, horizontal transmission
Hospital acquired infections, also known as nosocomial infections, are infections that patients acquire during the course of receiving treatment for other conditions within a healthcare setting. These infections can spread through direct contact or indirectly through hands, equipment, and the environment. Standard precautions like proper hand hygiene and the use of personal protective equipment are important for preventing the transmission of infections between patients and staff. Additional precautions tailored to specific infection types may also be implemented, such as isolating patients, wearing protective masks, and limiting movement. Regular surveillance and adherence to infection control guidelines and manuals are necessary to effectively reduce hospital acquired infections.
Hospital acquired infections (HAIs) are infections patients get while receiving medical treatment for other conditions in a hospital. The document discusses factors that promote HAIs like decreased immunity and invasive medical procedures. It also outlines common types of HAIs like surgical site infections and UTIs. The impacts of HAIs include increased hospital stays, additional costs, and transmission of organisms to the community. Preventing the spread requires proper hand hygiene, environmental cleaning, and disinfection of medical equipment. Hospitals should have infection control committees and programs to conduct surveillance and promote prevention practices.
Hospital-acquired infections are caused by viral, bacterial, and fungal pathogens; the most common types are bloodstream infection (BSI), pneumonia (eg, ventilator-associated pneumonia [VAP]), urinary tract infection (UTI), and surgical site infection (SSI)
The document discusses infection control principles including microorganisms, pathogens, infection transmission, and the nurse's role in controlling infections. It describes the chain of infection which involves an infectious agent, reservoir, portal of exit, mode of transmission, portal of entry, and susceptible host. Breaking the chain of infection is key to preventing the spread of disease. Nurses play an important role in controlling infections through proper hygiene, asepsis, and following universal precautions.
Topic- Infection- Types, Source and Spread by Chhavi SainiChhavi Saini
The document discusses infection, including its definition, types, causes, sources, and modes of transmission. It defines infection as the invasion and multiplication of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites within the body. There are several types of infections including primary, secondary, hospital-acquired, and latent infections. Infections can be caused by a variety of microbes including viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites. Sources of infection are either endogenous from inside the body or exogenous from outside sources. Modes of transmission include direct or indirect contact, inhalation, ingestion, insects, congenitally from mother to fetus, and iatrogenically during medical procedures.
This PPT contains the source, mode and factors causing infections in humans.
RESERVOIRS AND SOURCES OF INFECTION,
MODE OF TRANSMISSION, SUSCEPTIBLE HOST
Depending on the duration of carriage, carriers are classified as :
temporary carrier, chronic carrier
types of vectors:
mechanical vector, biological vector,
mode of transmission of infection-
vertical transmissiom, horizontal transmission
Hospital acquired infections, also known as nosocomial infections, are infections that patients acquire during the course of receiving treatment for other conditions within a healthcare setting. These infections can spread through direct contact or indirectly through hands, equipment, and the environment. Standard precautions like proper hand hygiene and the use of personal protective equipment are important for preventing the transmission of infections between patients and staff. Additional precautions tailored to specific infection types may also be implemented, such as isolating patients, wearing protective masks, and limiting movement. Regular surveillance and adherence to infection control guidelines and manuals are necessary to effectively reduce hospital acquired infections.
Hospital acquired infections (HAIs) are infections patients get while receiving medical treatment for other conditions in a hospital. The document discusses factors that promote HAIs like decreased immunity and invasive medical procedures. It also outlines common types of HAIs like surgical site infections and UTIs. The impacts of HAIs include increased hospital stays, additional costs, and transmission of organisms to the community. Preventing the spread requires proper hand hygiene, environmental cleaning, and disinfection of medical equipment. Hospitals should have infection control committees and programs to conduct surveillance and promote prevention practices.
Hospital-acquired infections are caused by viral, bacterial, and fungal pathogens; the most common types are bloodstream infection (BSI), pneumonia (eg, ventilator-associated pneumonia [VAP]), urinary tract infection (UTI), and surgical site infection (SSI)
Nosocomial infections, also known as hospital-acquired infections, are infections that patients acquire during a hospital stay that were not present at the time of admission. These infections can occur through contact with microorganisms from other patients, staff, or equipment in the hospital environment. A study across 55 hospitals in 14 countries found the overall rate of nosocomial infections to be 8.7%, with the highest rates in East Mediterranean and Southeast Asian countries. The major causes of nosocomial infections are imbalances between infectious agents, patient susceptibility as hosts, and environmental factors in healthcare settings.
This document discusses routes and sources of infection. It begins by classifying infections as acute, chronic, primary, secondary, etc. Infections can be endogenous from normal flora or exogenous from external sources. Sources of infection include humans (carriers, patients), animals, insects, soil, water and food. Modes of transmission include contact, inhalation, ingestion, inoculation, and vectors like insects. Types of infectious diseases are localized, generalized, bacteremia, septicemia and pyemia. Epidemiological terms like endemic, epidemic and pandemic are also defined. The stages of generalized infection are described as entry of pathogen, portal of entry, colonization, incubation period and increasing severity of
This document discusses infection, including its classification, sources, modes of transmission, and factors that influence pathogenicity. It defines saprophytes, commensals, and pathogens. Infections can be primary, secondary, local, cross, or nosocomial. Sources of infection include humans, animals, insects, soil, water, and food. Pathogens can be transmitted via contact, inhalation, ingestion, inoculation, insects, congenitally, or iatrogenically. Factors like transmissibility, adhesion, toxins, and host defenses influence a microbe's ability to cause disease.
This document discusses types of infections and their classification. It covers primary infections caused by initial exposure to a pathogen. Reinfections occur when exposed to the same pathogen after recovery. Secondary infections happen when immunity is lowered allowing a new pathogen to invade. Focal infections are localized, while nosocomial infections are acquired in hospitals. Factors like drugs, medical equipment, and commensal bacteria turning pathogenic can lead to iatrogenic or endogenous infections. Exogenous infections come from external sources. Latent infections involve pathogens hiding in tissues.
INFECTION CONTROL IN CLINICAL SETTING.pptxRinkupatel55
The document discusses various types of infections including primary, secondary, reinfection, cross infection, nosocomial infection, and iatrogenic infection. It also defines local, systematic, mixed, acute, chronic, pyrogenic, and latent infections. The chain of infection and how nurses break the chain is explained. Microorganisms that cause infection and the factors affecting their ability to cause disease are outlined. The document also discusses the incubation period, prodromal stage, illness stage, and convalescence period of infections. It examines the risk factors for infection including age, nutrition, medications, disease states, genetics, and neutrophil count. The body's defense mechanisms against infection including anatomical barriers, inflammation, the immune system response
Bed making fundamental procedure by Anshuay7752124
The document discusses different types of bed making including open, closed, and cardiac beds. It defines bed making as preparing a bed that is comfortable and suitable for a hospitalized client. The purposes of bed making are to provide a clean, comfortable bed and prevent infections and bedsores. Types of beds covered include open, closed, occupied, admission, post-operative, cardiac, and therapeutic beds. Procedures for making open, closed and cardiac beds are outlined.
The document discusses hospital acquired (nosocomial) infections. It begins by explaining that patients in healthcare settings are at higher risk of infection than those at home. Healthcare-associated infection is now used instead of nosocomial to refer to all healthcare settings. One third of infections are acquired in hospitals. The causes include invasive devices, underlying patient conditions, and movement of medical staff between patients. Common sites of infection are the urinary tract, surgical wounds, and lungs. Strict hand hygiene and use of personal protective equipment are emphasized as the most important prevention methods.
There are several types of infections described in the document. A localized infection occurs when bacteria invade a specific point in the body and remain there until eliminated. A disseminated infection occurs when microorganisms spread from the initial site of infection to other tissues throughout the body. A polymicrobial infection involves more than one pathogenic microorganism. A primary infection is the original outbreak of an illness against which the body has not yet developed antibodies. A secondary infection occurs when a primary infection makes a person susceptible to another disease. Infections can also be classified based on their duration as either long-term, lasting weeks or months, or short-term, lasting several days. Healthcare-associated infections are acquired in a medical facility. Z
The document discusses immunity and the immune system. It describes two main types of immunity - innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity provides early defense responses that are non-specific, while adaptive immunity provides later, highly specific responses that improve with repeated exposure. The mechanisms of innate immunity include physical and chemical barriers, white blood cells, inflammation, and the complement system. Adaptive immunity involves both humoral immunity through B cells and antibodies, and cellular immunity through T cells. Antibodies help neutralize pathogens through mechanisms like agglutination and lysis. The immune system also has abnormal reactions like autoimmunity and hypersensitivity.
Nosocomial infections, also known as healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), develop in patients during or after a hospital stay. Common types include central line-associated bloodstream infections, catheter-associated urinary tract infections, surgical site infections, and ventilator-associated pneumonia. Nosocomial infections can arise from a patient's own microbes or microbes transmitted from other patients, staff, or the hospital environment. Globally, nosocomial infections affect a huge number of patients annually, increasing mortality and costs significantly. According to WHO estimates, approximately 15% of hospitalized patients suffer from these infections.
This document defines various concepts and terminology used in microbiology. It provides definitions for over 50 terms, including types of microorganisms (such as aerobes, anaerobes, bacilli), microbial structures (such as flagella, capsule), microbial properties (such as acid-fast, pathogenic), host responses (such as antibody, immunity), and methods of controlling microbes (such as antiseptics, disinfectants, sterilization). The purpose is to help understand the meanings of terms commonly used in the study of microbiology.
The document summarizes the body's immune defenses against infection. It describes two main types of immunity: innate immunity, which provides nonspecific defenses like skin barriers and phagocytes; and acquired (adaptive) immunity, which develops after exposure and provides pathogen-specific responses using B cells, T cells, antibodies, and immunological memory. The immune system uses successive lines of defense, from physical barriers and phagocytes to inflammation and antibodies, to protect the body. Vaccines help produce active immunity by exposing the immune system to weakened or killed pathogens.
This document defines various microbiology terms related to infection. It discusses pathogens, opportunistic pathogens, parasites, commensals, and saprophytes. It also describes different types of infections like primary, secondary, focal, nosocomial, and iatrogenic infections. Modes of transmission are discussed including contact, inhalation, ingestion, and inoculation. Sources of infection from humans, animals, insects, soils, water, and food are outlined. Finally, it briefly touches on types of infectious diseases like endemic, epidemic, pandemic, and sporadic.
1. Infection control aims to break the chain of infection by controlling infectious agents, modes of transmission, portals of entry and exit, and protecting susceptible hosts.
2. Key aspects of infection control include identifying pathogens, cleaning and disinfection, immunization, protective equipment, isolation precautions, and maintaining host defenses.
3. Standard precautions like hand hygiene, personal protective equipment, and isolation are important for preventing the spread of infections in clinical settings.
This document discusses the importance and relevance of microbiology to nursing. It explains that nurses must understand microbiology to control infections in hospitals and know which microorganisms are harmful or harmless to humans. Microbiology knowledge helps nurses with drug production, diagnosis, sterilization, and maintaining cleanliness. The document also provides brief historical perspectives on Koch's phenomenon and Koch's postulates, which were methods for identifying disease-causing pathogens established by Robert Koch.
The document discusses the important role of nurses in microbiology. It emphasizes that nurses must have a conceptual clinical approach in areas like asepsis, sterilization, infection control, and recognizing infections. Nurses need fundamental knowledge in microbiology to understand disease stages, diagnoses, treatments, and provide quality patient care. They must learn microbiology concepts and skills like sample collection, laboratory testing, and the biology of microbes to aid diagnosis and treatment. Understanding pathogenesis, immunity, antibiotics, and infection control is essential for nurses to fulfill their role in microbiology.
Medical and surgical asepsis aim to prevent the spread of infection. Medical asepsis focuses on maintaining cleanliness while surgical asepsis requires complete removal of microorganisms. Key aspects of medical asepsis include thorough hand washing, use of personal protective equipment like masks and gloves, and disinfecting equipment. Surgical asepsis has additional stringent steps like sterilization of instruments and creating a sterile field during procedures. Maintaining asepsis is crucial as hospitals house immunocompromised patients and medical equipment/procedures can transmit pathogens.
This document discusses infection control and hospital acquired infections. It covers the chain of infection, types of nosocomial infections, their causes and modes of transmission. It also summarizes the principles of medical and surgical asepsis, isolation precautions including different types of isolation, and the importance of hand washing in infection control.
This document defines and discusses various types of infections. It begins by defining an infection as the invasion of an organism's tissues by pathogenic agents, their multiplication, and the host's reaction. Infections can be caused by viruses, viroids, prions, bacteria, nematodes, arthropods, fungi, and other microorganisms. The document then provides details on the causes, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of infections.
This document discusses various aspects of infectious diseases including definitions, classification, transmission, and pathogenic mechanisms. It defines infection as the lodgement and multiplication of an infectious agent in the body. Infections are classified as endogenous or exogenous depending on the source, and as acute, chronic, latent, or atypical depending on clinical manifestations. Microbes can be transmitted via contact, airborne droplets, ingestion, inoculation, transplacentally, or through iatrogenic means. Pathogenicity is determined by microbial adhesion, invasiveness, antiphagocytic factors, and toxins. Exotoxins are often heat-labile proteins that can be converted to toxoids.
This document discusses infection and infectious diseases. It begins by defining key terms like infection, acute and chronic infection. It then classifies infections in various ways such as primary vs secondary. The document outlines different sources of infection like humans, animals, insects, soil/water and food. It describes several methods by which infections can be transmitted, including contact, inhalation, ingestion and more. Finally, it discusses factors that influence microbial pathogenicity and mechanisms pathogens use to cause disease, such as adhesion, invasiveness, and survival strategies within the host.
Nosocomial infections, also known as hospital-acquired infections, are infections that patients acquire during a hospital stay that were not present at the time of admission. These infections can occur through contact with microorganisms from other patients, staff, or equipment in the hospital environment. A study across 55 hospitals in 14 countries found the overall rate of nosocomial infections to be 8.7%, with the highest rates in East Mediterranean and Southeast Asian countries. The major causes of nosocomial infections are imbalances between infectious agents, patient susceptibility as hosts, and environmental factors in healthcare settings.
This document discusses routes and sources of infection. It begins by classifying infections as acute, chronic, primary, secondary, etc. Infections can be endogenous from normal flora or exogenous from external sources. Sources of infection include humans (carriers, patients), animals, insects, soil, water and food. Modes of transmission include contact, inhalation, ingestion, inoculation, and vectors like insects. Types of infectious diseases are localized, generalized, bacteremia, septicemia and pyemia. Epidemiological terms like endemic, epidemic and pandemic are also defined. The stages of generalized infection are described as entry of pathogen, portal of entry, colonization, incubation period and increasing severity of
This document discusses infection, including its classification, sources, modes of transmission, and factors that influence pathogenicity. It defines saprophytes, commensals, and pathogens. Infections can be primary, secondary, local, cross, or nosocomial. Sources of infection include humans, animals, insects, soil, water, and food. Pathogens can be transmitted via contact, inhalation, ingestion, inoculation, insects, congenitally, or iatrogenically. Factors like transmissibility, adhesion, toxins, and host defenses influence a microbe's ability to cause disease.
This document discusses types of infections and their classification. It covers primary infections caused by initial exposure to a pathogen. Reinfections occur when exposed to the same pathogen after recovery. Secondary infections happen when immunity is lowered allowing a new pathogen to invade. Focal infections are localized, while nosocomial infections are acquired in hospitals. Factors like drugs, medical equipment, and commensal bacteria turning pathogenic can lead to iatrogenic or endogenous infections. Exogenous infections come from external sources. Latent infections involve pathogens hiding in tissues.
INFECTION CONTROL IN CLINICAL SETTING.pptxRinkupatel55
The document discusses various types of infections including primary, secondary, reinfection, cross infection, nosocomial infection, and iatrogenic infection. It also defines local, systematic, mixed, acute, chronic, pyrogenic, and latent infections. The chain of infection and how nurses break the chain is explained. Microorganisms that cause infection and the factors affecting their ability to cause disease are outlined. The document also discusses the incubation period, prodromal stage, illness stage, and convalescence period of infections. It examines the risk factors for infection including age, nutrition, medications, disease states, genetics, and neutrophil count. The body's defense mechanisms against infection including anatomical barriers, inflammation, the immune system response
Bed making fundamental procedure by Anshuay7752124
The document discusses different types of bed making including open, closed, and cardiac beds. It defines bed making as preparing a bed that is comfortable and suitable for a hospitalized client. The purposes of bed making are to provide a clean, comfortable bed and prevent infections and bedsores. Types of beds covered include open, closed, occupied, admission, post-operative, cardiac, and therapeutic beds. Procedures for making open, closed and cardiac beds are outlined.
The document discusses hospital acquired (nosocomial) infections. It begins by explaining that patients in healthcare settings are at higher risk of infection than those at home. Healthcare-associated infection is now used instead of nosocomial to refer to all healthcare settings. One third of infections are acquired in hospitals. The causes include invasive devices, underlying patient conditions, and movement of medical staff between patients. Common sites of infection are the urinary tract, surgical wounds, and lungs. Strict hand hygiene and use of personal protective equipment are emphasized as the most important prevention methods.
There are several types of infections described in the document. A localized infection occurs when bacteria invade a specific point in the body and remain there until eliminated. A disseminated infection occurs when microorganisms spread from the initial site of infection to other tissues throughout the body. A polymicrobial infection involves more than one pathogenic microorganism. A primary infection is the original outbreak of an illness against which the body has not yet developed antibodies. A secondary infection occurs when a primary infection makes a person susceptible to another disease. Infections can also be classified based on their duration as either long-term, lasting weeks or months, or short-term, lasting several days. Healthcare-associated infections are acquired in a medical facility. Z
The document discusses immunity and the immune system. It describes two main types of immunity - innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity provides early defense responses that are non-specific, while adaptive immunity provides later, highly specific responses that improve with repeated exposure. The mechanisms of innate immunity include physical and chemical barriers, white blood cells, inflammation, and the complement system. Adaptive immunity involves both humoral immunity through B cells and antibodies, and cellular immunity through T cells. Antibodies help neutralize pathogens through mechanisms like agglutination and lysis. The immune system also has abnormal reactions like autoimmunity and hypersensitivity.
Nosocomial infections, also known as healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), develop in patients during or after a hospital stay. Common types include central line-associated bloodstream infections, catheter-associated urinary tract infections, surgical site infections, and ventilator-associated pneumonia. Nosocomial infections can arise from a patient's own microbes or microbes transmitted from other patients, staff, or the hospital environment. Globally, nosocomial infections affect a huge number of patients annually, increasing mortality and costs significantly. According to WHO estimates, approximately 15% of hospitalized patients suffer from these infections.
This document defines various concepts and terminology used in microbiology. It provides definitions for over 50 terms, including types of microorganisms (such as aerobes, anaerobes, bacilli), microbial structures (such as flagella, capsule), microbial properties (such as acid-fast, pathogenic), host responses (such as antibody, immunity), and methods of controlling microbes (such as antiseptics, disinfectants, sterilization). The purpose is to help understand the meanings of terms commonly used in the study of microbiology.
The document summarizes the body's immune defenses against infection. It describes two main types of immunity: innate immunity, which provides nonspecific defenses like skin barriers and phagocytes; and acquired (adaptive) immunity, which develops after exposure and provides pathogen-specific responses using B cells, T cells, antibodies, and immunological memory. The immune system uses successive lines of defense, from physical barriers and phagocytes to inflammation and antibodies, to protect the body. Vaccines help produce active immunity by exposing the immune system to weakened or killed pathogens.
This document defines various microbiology terms related to infection. It discusses pathogens, opportunistic pathogens, parasites, commensals, and saprophytes. It also describes different types of infections like primary, secondary, focal, nosocomial, and iatrogenic infections. Modes of transmission are discussed including contact, inhalation, ingestion, and inoculation. Sources of infection from humans, animals, insects, soils, water, and food are outlined. Finally, it briefly touches on types of infectious diseases like endemic, epidemic, pandemic, and sporadic.
1. Infection control aims to break the chain of infection by controlling infectious agents, modes of transmission, portals of entry and exit, and protecting susceptible hosts.
2. Key aspects of infection control include identifying pathogens, cleaning and disinfection, immunization, protective equipment, isolation precautions, and maintaining host defenses.
3. Standard precautions like hand hygiene, personal protective equipment, and isolation are important for preventing the spread of infections in clinical settings.
This document discusses the importance and relevance of microbiology to nursing. It explains that nurses must understand microbiology to control infections in hospitals and know which microorganisms are harmful or harmless to humans. Microbiology knowledge helps nurses with drug production, diagnosis, sterilization, and maintaining cleanliness. The document also provides brief historical perspectives on Koch's phenomenon and Koch's postulates, which were methods for identifying disease-causing pathogens established by Robert Koch.
The document discusses the important role of nurses in microbiology. It emphasizes that nurses must have a conceptual clinical approach in areas like asepsis, sterilization, infection control, and recognizing infections. Nurses need fundamental knowledge in microbiology to understand disease stages, diagnoses, treatments, and provide quality patient care. They must learn microbiology concepts and skills like sample collection, laboratory testing, and the biology of microbes to aid diagnosis and treatment. Understanding pathogenesis, immunity, antibiotics, and infection control is essential for nurses to fulfill their role in microbiology.
Medical and surgical asepsis aim to prevent the spread of infection. Medical asepsis focuses on maintaining cleanliness while surgical asepsis requires complete removal of microorganisms. Key aspects of medical asepsis include thorough hand washing, use of personal protective equipment like masks and gloves, and disinfecting equipment. Surgical asepsis has additional stringent steps like sterilization of instruments and creating a sterile field during procedures. Maintaining asepsis is crucial as hospitals house immunocompromised patients and medical equipment/procedures can transmit pathogens.
This document discusses infection control and hospital acquired infections. It covers the chain of infection, types of nosocomial infections, their causes and modes of transmission. It also summarizes the principles of medical and surgical asepsis, isolation precautions including different types of isolation, and the importance of hand washing in infection control.
This document defines and discusses various types of infections. It begins by defining an infection as the invasion of an organism's tissues by pathogenic agents, their multiplication, and the host's reaction. Infections can be caused by viruses, viroids, prions, bacteria, nematodes, arthropods, fungi, and other microorganisms. The document then provides details on the causes, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of infections.
This document discusses various aspects of infectious diseases including definitions, classification, transmission, and pathogenic mechanisms. It defines infection as the lodgement and multiplication of an infectious agent in the body. Infections are classified as endogenous or exogenous depending on the source, and as acute, chronic, latent, or atypical depending on clinical manifestations. Microbes can be transmitted via contact, airborne droplets, ingestion, inoculation, transplacentally, or through iatrogenic means. Pathogenicity is determined by microbial adhesion, invasiveness, antiphagocytic factors, and toxins. Exotoxins are often heat-labile proteins that can be converted to toxoids.
This document discusses infection and infectious diseases. It begins by defining key terms like infection, acute and chronic infection. It then classifies infections in various ways such as primary vs secondary. The document outlines different sources of infection like humans, animals, insects, soil/water and food. It describes several methods by which infections can be transmitted, including contact, inhalation, ingestion and more. Finally, it discusses factors that influence microbial pathogenicity and mechanisms pathogens use to cause disease, such as adhesion, invasiveness, and survival strategies within the host.
This document defines key terminology related to microbial pathogenicity and discusses various concepts including:
1. It classifies microbes as saprophytes, parasites, commensals, and pathogens.
2. It describes the infection process and different types of infections such as primary, secondary, and nosocomial.
3. It explains mechanisms of microbial pathogenicity including routes of transmission, infective dose, evasion of host defenses, adhesion, invasion, and the role of toxins and pathogenicity islands.
This document discusses infection and infectious diseases. It defines key terms like infection, disease, pathogens, and commensals. It describes how infections are classified, including primary vs secondary infections. It outlines various sources of infection like humans, animals, insects, soil/water, and food. It also explains different methods of transmitting infections, such as contact, inhalation, ingestion, and inoculation.
Introduction of medical microbiology unit 1meghashridhar
This document provides an introduction to medical microbiology. It defines key terms related to bacteriology, virology, parasitology, mycology, and immunology. The history of microbiology is discussed, focusing on pioneers like Van Leeuwenhoek, Pasteur, Koch, Ehrlich, Lister, and Fleming. The relationship between microbes and hosts is explained, including normal flora, pathogens, opportunistic pathogens, and virulence. The transmission of infection is summarized, covering portals of entry/exit and means of transmission. The process of pathogenesis is outlined.
infection and infectious agents causing diseasesREKHA DEHARIYA
Microorganisms normally aid bodily functions but can cause disease if harmony is disrupted. An infection occurs when a pathogen enters the body, finds a favorable environment, and multiplies. An infection results in the pathogen colonizing the host and using its resources. A disease then results from impaired tissue function due to the pathogen or toxins it produces. Infections spread through a chain involving a reservoir, exit portal, transmission mode, entry portal, and susceptible host. Breaking any link in the chain prevents transmission.
The document defines various terminologies related to microbial pathogenicity and infection. It discusses terms like saprophytes, parasites, commensals, pathogens, opportunistic pathogens, infection, colonization, infestation, and more. It also classifies infections based on factors like source, clinical manifestation, epidemiological patterns, and more. Finally, it covers various mechanisms of microbial pathogenicity like adhesion, invasiveness, toxins, inhibition of phagocytosis, and more.
This document discusses infection and microbiology. It defines infection as the invasion and growth of microorganisms in body tissues. Microorganisms that cause disease are called pathogens, and can enter the body through various portals of entry. They are then able to multiply if they find a susceptible host. The document outlines different types of infections and how they are classified. It also discusses the factors that influence microbial pathogenicity and how infections are transmitted.
The document discusses various types of relationships between microorganisms such as mutualism, parasitism, and commensalism. It also defines key microbiology terms like infection, disease, pathogenicity, and virulence. Finally, it describes the different microorganisms that normally reside on or inside the human body as well as those that can be present transiently.
Microbe-Human Interactions: Infection and DiseaseMELVIN FAILAGAO
Chapter 12 Microbe-Human Interactions: Infection and Disease
subtopics:
1. The progress of an infection
2. Epidemiology: The study of disease in Populations
3. Non specific host defenses
4. Defense mechanisms of the host in perspective
Microorganisms can cause disease when they enter the body and find a favorable environment. An infection occurs through a chain of events - a pathogen must have a reservoir, exit the reservoir, be transmitted to a new host, enter through a portal, and find a susceptible host. Breaking any link in the chain can prevent transmission and infection. Common ways to do this include proper hygiene, sterilization, use of antiseptics, vaccination, and strengthening a host's defenses.
INFECTION AND INFECTIOUS PROCEعمللياSS.pptxssuser139631
This document discusses infection and infectious processes. It defines infection and classifications of infections such as primary, secondary, and focal infections. It describes sources of infection in humans such as other humans, animals, insects, soil, water, and food. Methods of transmission include contact, inhalation, ingestion, inoculation, and congenitally. Factors that contribute to microbial pathogenicity include adhesion, invasiveness, and toxins. The document also discusses types of infectious diseases and stages of infectious disease.
This document discusses infection and infectious processes. It defines infection and classifies different types of infections such as primary, secondary, and nosocomial infections. It describes the sources of infections in humans which can come from other humans, animals, insects, soil, water, and food. It also outlines various methods of transmitting infections like contact, inhalation, ingestion, inoculation, and congenitally. Factors that contribute to microbial pathogenicity include adhesion, invasiveness, toxigenicity, communicability, and bacterial appendages. The document also differentiates between endemic, epidemic, and pandemic diseases and describes the stages of infectious diseases. Finally, it discusses biofilms, quorum sensing, and characteristics of biofilm formation
The document discusses various topics related to infection and immunity. It defines infection, types of infection, sources of infection, and modes of transmission. It also defines and classifies different types of infections such as focal infection, cross infection, and nosocomial infection. The document then discusses the sources of infection in humans including endogenous sources like carriers and exogenous sources like animals, insects, soil, water, and food. It also discusses routes of transmission of pathogens like contact, inhalation, ingestion, inoculation, and congenital transmission. The document defines pathogenicity and virulence factors in microbes. It then defines immunity and discusses the immune system including innate immunity provided by first line defenses and adaptive immunity provided by antibodies and
This document discusses microbial pathogenesis and infectious diseases. It defines different types of microorganisms like saprophytes and parasites and different types of infections like primary and secondary infections. It describes various sources of infection like endogenous normal flora and exogenous sources like other humans, animals, insects, soil and water. It also discusses different modes of transmission of infections and various virulence factors that contribute to microbial pathogenicity. These include factors for adhesion, invasiveness, toxigenicity, plasmids, bacteriophages and more. Finally, it briefly outlines different types of infectious diseases like endemic, epidemic, pandemic diseases and specific clinical infections.
This document provides an overview of epidemiology and the epidemiology of communicable diseases. It defines epidemiology as the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations. Communicable diseases are transmitted from one case to another through various cycles and modes of transmission. The epidemiologic triad of agent, host, and environment influences disease occurrence. Epidemic investigation aims to identify the infectious agent, affected individuals, and factors propagating an epidemic in order to control disease spread. Prevention strategies include primordial prevention by promoting healthy behaviors, and primary prevention targeting specific diseases.
Epidemiology, modes of transmission control of comm. disease pptSiddharthMendhe3
This document provides an overview of epidemiology and the control of communicable diseases. It defines epidemiology and describes the different types of infections and their modes of transmission. It discusses descriptive and analytical epidemiology. It also covers the normal flora of the human body, the infection process, and microbial virulence factors. Finally, it summarizes methods of controlling communicable diseases such as controlling the source of infection, blocking transmission routes, and protecting susceptible populations.
The document discusses different types of infections and their modes of transmission. It defines infection as the lodgment and multiplication of a parasite in a host's tissues. Infections are classified as viral, bacterial, fungal, or parasitic. Viral infections involve a virus infiltrating and replicating within a host's cells. Bacterial infections are caused by bacteria that can enter through wounds or openings. Fungal infections are often mild but some can be serious. Parasitic infections involve protozoa or other parasites that thrive in moist environments. Infections can be transmitted directly from person to person through droplets, skin contact, or body fluids, or indirectly through vectors, contaminated objects, food/water, animals, or the environment
Host-parasite relationship is determined by the interaction between host factors and the infecting microorganisms. outcome of any microbial infection depends on the interaction between the host and the parasite.
A communicable disease is an infectious disease that is transmitted from one person or animal to another directly or indirectly. Communicable diseases can be transmitted through various modes such as direct contact, droplet infection, contaminated vehicles like food or water, vectors like mosquitoes, and from mother to fetus. Common examples of communicable diseases include respiratory infections like tuberculosis, measles, and influenza; gastrointestinal infections spread through fecal-oral transmission like cholera and typhoid; and vector-borne diseases transmitted by mosquitoes and arthropods.
Similar to BSc. 1 Infection and Antigens.pptx (20)
ionotropes.pptx with medications related to HDDarshanS239776
Inotropes are drugs that affect the force of heart contractions. There are two types: positive inotropes strengthen heartbeats while negative inotropes weaken heartbeats. Positive inotropes can help when the heart is too weak to pump enough blood to the body.
- Giardia lamblia is a unicellular parasite that causes giardiasis in humans. It was first observed by Van Leeuwenhoek in 1681 and named after Alfred Giard.
- It exists in two forms - a cyst form which is infective, and a trophozoite form which attaches to the small intestine mucosa. The cyst is ingested and the trophozoite emerges to attach and feed.
- Symptoms of giardiasis include diarrhea, flatulence, and greasy stool. The infection is common in children and spreads through contaminated food, water, or direct fecal-oral transmission.
This document provides instructions for nasogastric tube insertion. It defines nasogastric tube insertion as introducing a tube into the stomach for therapeutic or diagnostic purposes. It describes the indications, equipment needed, preparation of the patient and unit, step-by-step procedure, recording/reporting, and methods to check tube placement including auscultation, aspirating gastric contents, and testing pH of aspirated fluid. The goal is to properly place the tube in the stomach to provide artificial feeding, administer oral medications or perform other procedures while ensuring patient safety and comfort.
This document discusses dialysis treatment for patients who are HIV, HCV, or HBsAg positive. It notes that these patients may develop kidney disease and require dialysis. Treatment for these patients is similar to other patients, though additional precautions are taken due to infection risk. These include isolating positive patients, thorough cleaning, avoiding dialyzer reuse, and proper handling and disposal of any contaminated fluids or waste. Staff also strictly follow universal precautions like protective equipment and cleaning between patients. Exposure incidents may also warrant post-exposure prophylaxis. The document reviews medications and vitamins given during dialysis to support patient health and replace lost nutrients.
1. Chronic kidney disease patients are susceptible to infections due to immunosuppression and should receive appropriate vaccinations when diagnosed.
2. Vaccine response is often sub-optimal in hemodialysis patients, and some live vaccines cannot be given to transplant patients.
3. Planning vaccination is important, with hepatitis B vaccine recommended for hemodialysis patients except those HBsAg positive, using double the normal dose.
This document outlines the steps for terminating a dialysis treatment session through either saline or air rinse. It describes disconnecting the patient from the dialysis machine by using saline or a saline-air mixture to displace the remaining blood in the extracorporeal circuit and return it to the patient. It notes that air rinse increases the risk of air embolism so must be carefully supervised. The document also provides instructions for caring for vascular access sites after treatment and in emergency situations.
This document provides information on cannulation for hemodialysis. It discusses the cannulation approach which involves using two needles, one for withdrawing blood from the patient into the dialysis circuit (arterial needle) and one for returning purified blood to the patient (venous needle). It describes three cannulation techniques: rope ladder, buttonhole, and area puncture. The buttonhole technique involves cannulating in the exact same spot each time. Physical assessment of the access is recommended before each cannulation. Factors to consider for a patient's first dialysis session include limiting blood and fluid removal. The document outlines the cannulation procedure and equipment needed.
The document describes the key components and functions of a dialysis machine. It discusses the three main compartments, features like the blood pump and dialysate delivery system, safety monitors including pressure monitors, and options like bicarbonate and variable sodium. It provides details on how each component works, such as how the blood pump circulates blood and how safety monitors detect issues like high pressure or air bubbles. The document also covers system disinfection and how to respond to common alarm situations during dialysis treatment.
CAPD catheters are flexible plastic tubes inserted into the abdomen to allow dialysis fluid to enter the abdominal cavity and remove toxins from the bloodstream. They have a titanium adapter to securely connect transfer sets or tubing. Transfer sets are used to connect the catheter to bags of dialysis solution and are replaced every 6-9 months. An automated peritoneal dialysis cycler machine fills the abdominal cavity with fresh dialysis solution, allows it to dwell, then drains the used solution automatically overnight while the patient sleeps.
Diffusion and osmosis are processes that allow for the exchange of solutes and fluid across the dialysis membrane during hemodialysis treatment. Diffusion is the movement of solutes down their concentration gradient from high to low concentration until equilibrium is reached. Osmosis is the movement of water from high to low concentration areas. Factors like temperature, surface area, and concentration gradients affect diffusion rates. Transmembrane pressure is the difference in pressure across the membrane and can cause alarms if too high or low. Venous pressure and ultrafiltration rates are also monitored during treatment.
The document discusses renal failure, including acute renal failure (ARF) and chronic renal failure (CRF). It defines renal failure as when the kidneys cannot remove metabolic waste or perform regulatory functions. ARF is a reversible clinical syndrome with sudden loss of kidney function over hours to days. CRF is kidney damage for 3+ months with decreased GFR. CRF management focuses on slowing progression, limiting complications like anemia and bone disease, and preparing for renal replacement therapies like dialysis and transplantation.
AKI and CKD are both conditions affecting kidney function. AKI refers to acute kidney injury and can be caused by factors like sepsis that lead to a rapid decline in kidney function over a period of days. CKD refers to chronic kidney disease, which develops over a period of months or years due to conditions like diabetes or hypertension. The prevalence of CKD stages 3-5 is around 5-7% globally. Mortality from AKI depends on the underlying cause, ranging from low to over 70% when associated with multi-organ failure from sepsis. Management of CKD focuses on slowing progression of disease and treating complications through diet, medication and preparing for renal replacement therapies like dialysis if needed.
This document discusses vital signs including temperature, pulse, respiration, and blood pressure. It provides details on:
- How and where to measure each vital sign
- Normal ranges
- Factors that can influence measurements
- How to document readings
- When to notify the nurse of abnormal findings
The key messages are that vital signs must be measured accurately according to standard procedures, documented properly, and any abnormalities reported immediately to the nurse. Regular monitoring of vital signs is important for assessing patient health and detecting changes that may require medical intervention.
This presentation reviews the WHO guidelines for proper hand hygiene. It discusses that hand hygiene includes cleaning hands with soap and water or alcohol-based hand rub to remove germs. The "who, what, where, when, why and how" of hand hygiene are explained, including that everyone should practice hand hygiene, especially in healthcare settings. The key moments when hand hygiene should be performed are outlined as well as the proper technique.
1) Fractures are breaks in bone continuity that can be complete or partial. Types include simple, compound, complicated, and greenstick fractures.
2) Causes include direct force from impacts or falls, indirect force from twisting motions, and diseases weakening bones.
3) Signs are pain, swelling, deformity, inability to move the injured area, and sometimes hearing a snapping sound.
4) First aid aims to prevent further injury, reduce pain, and prepare for medical transport. Injured areas are immobilized using splints or other supports.
This document discusses effective communication and its importance. It defines effective communication as a two-way process of sending the right message to the right person. It outlines the 7Cs of effective communication: completeness, conciseness, consideration, clarity, concreteness, courtesy and correctness. Barriers to effective communication include lack of skills, sensitivity and knowledge as well as distractions. The document also discusses listening as a key part of communication and provides techniques for active listening such as paraphrasing, summarizing and questioning.
Dialysate is the fluid used during dialysis that draws waste and excess fluid from the blood. It has a similar composition to plasma with electrolytes like sodium, chloride, calcium, potassium, and either acetate or bicarbonate. Dialysate prevents essential electrolytes from being removed from the blood and controls water removal during dialysis. The two main types are acetate and bicarbonate dialysate, with bicarbonate being preferred as acetate can cause side effects like hypotension. Dialysate delivery systems carefully blend concentrates and water, monitor dialysate parameters, control flow rates, and disinfect equipment to safely perform dialysis.
This document provides instructions for making occupied, unoccupied, and surgical beds. It discusses the importance of wrinkle-free sheets, hygiene measures when changing sheets, and proper positioning and support of the patient. The steps for making an occupied bed with a patient in it are outlined, including covering the patient, changing soiled linens on one side of the bed before the other, and tucking in the draw sheet at the end. Hospital corners and fan folding techniques are also described.
Aerosol drug administration involves delivering medication via small particles that are inhaled through the lungs. It allows for rapid absorption and localization of drugs to treat conditions like asthma and COPD. Nebulization converts liquid medications into a mist using a nebulizer machine. Metered dose inhalers (MDIs) precisely deliver medication via an aerosol spray with each push of the canister. Proper administration of both requires specific techniques to ensure the patient inhales the full dose.
This document discusses suturing techniques and materials. It begins by outlining the objectives of learning suturing instruments and closure techniques. Various instruments used for suturing like forceps and scissors are described. Different types of needles, suture materials both absorbable and non-absorbable, and whether they are monofilament or braided are explained. Basic suturing techniques like simple interrupted sutures, running sutures, and mattress sutures are outlined. Factors to consider when choosing a suturing technique based on wound type and location are highlighted. Principles of knot tying are reviewed.
Joker Wigs has been a one-stop-shop for hair products for over 26 years. We provide high-quality hair wigs, hair extensions, hair toppers, hair patch, and more for both men and women.
Letter to MREC - application to conduct studyAzreen Aj
Application to conduct study on research title 'Awareness and knowledge of oral cancer and precancer among dental outpatient in Klinik Pergigian Merlimau, Melaka'
Gemma Wean- Nutritional solution for Artemiasmuskaan0008
GEMMA Wean is a high end larval co-feeding and weaning diet aimed at Artemia optimisation and is fortified with a high level of proteins and phospholipids. GEMMA Wean provides the early weaned juveniles with dedicated fish nutrition and is an ideal follow on from GEMMA Micro or Artemia.
GEMMA Wean has an optimised nutritional balance and physical quality so that it flows more freely and spreads readily on the water surface. The balance of phospholipid classes to- gether with the production technology based on a low temperature extrusion process improve the physical aspect of the pellets while still retaining the high phospholipid content.
GEMMA Wean is available in 0.1mm, 0.2mm and 0.3mm. There is also a 0.5mm micro-pellet, GEMMA Wean Diamond, which covers the early nursery stage from post-weaning to pre-growing.
Comprehensive Rainy Season Advisory: Safety and Preparedness Tips.pdfDr Rachana Gujar
The "Comprehensive Rainy Season Advisory: Safety and Preparedness Tips" offers essential guidance for navigating rainy weather conditions. It covers strategies for staying safe during storms, flood prevention measures, and advice on preparing for inclement weather. This advisory aims to ensure individuals are equipped with the knowledge and resources to handle the challenges of the rainy season effectively, emphasizing safety, preparedness, and resilience.
About this webinar: This talk will introduce what cancer rehabilitation is, where it fits into the cancer trajectory, and who can benefit from it. In addition, the current landscape of cancer rehabilitation in Canada will be discussed and the need for advocacy to increase access to this essential component of cancer care.
This particular slides consist of- what is Pneumothorax,what are it's causes and it's effect on body, risk factors, symptoms,complications, diagnosis and role of physiotherapy in it.
This slide is very helpful for physiotherapy students and also for other medical and healthcare students.
Here is a summary of Pneumothorax:
Pneumothorax, also known as a collapsed lung, is a condition that occurs when air leaks into the space between the lung and chest wall. This air buildup puts pressure on the lung, preventing it from expanding fully when you breathe. A pneumothorax can cause a complete or partial collapse of the lung.
Can Allopathy and Homeopathy Be Used Together in India.pdfDharma Homoeopathy
This article explores the potential for combining allopathy and homeopathy in India, examining the benefits, challenges, and the emerging field of integrative medicine.
Hypertension and it's role of physiotherapy in it.Vishal kr Thakur
This particular slides consist of- what is hypertension,what are it's causes and it's effect on body, risk factors, symptoms,complications, diagnosis and role of physiotherapy in it.
This slide is very helpful for physiotherapy students and also for other medical and healthcare students.
Here is summary of hypertension -
Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a serious medical condition that occurs when blood pressure in the body's arteries is consistently too high. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of blood vessels as the heart pumps it. Hypertension can increase the risk of heart disease, brain disease, kidney disease, and premature death.
LGBTQ+ Adults: Unique Opportunities and Inclusive Approaches to CareVITASAuthor
This webinar helps clinicians understand the unique healthcare needs of the LGBTQ+ community, primarily in relation to end-of-life care. Topics include social and cultural background and challenges, healthcare disparities, advanced care planning, and strategies for reaching the community and improving quality of care.
The facial nerve, also known as cranial nerve VII, is one of the 12 cranial nerves originating from the brain. It's a mixed nerve, meaning it contains both sensory and motor fibres, and it plays a crucial role in controlling various facial muscles, as well as conveying sensory information from the taste buds on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue.
3. Introduction
What is an infection?
What is a disease?
Classification of infection
Sources of infection
Methods of transmission of infection
Factors of predisposing to microbial
pathogenecity
Types of infectious disease
4. Infection and immunity involve interaction
between the animal body (host) and the
infecting microorganism.
Based on their relationship to their hosts,
microorganisms can be classified as
Saprophytes Parasites
5. Greek word sapros; meaning decayed
They are free-living microbes that subsist on
dead or decaying organic matter.
Found in soil and water which plays an
important role in the degradation of organic
materials in nature.
Little relevance in infectious disease because
they cannot multiply on living tissues.
Exception- B.subtilis- infect
immunocompromised people.
(? Immunocompromised people)
6. Greek pathos; suffering, gen; produce
They are microbes that can establish
themselves and multiply in hosts.
Parasitic microbes may be either pathogens
or commensals.
(? Examples of other commensals)
7. Infection –
Is the invasion or colonization of the body by
pathogenic microorganisms.
The presence of a particular type of
microorganism in a part of the body where it
is not normally found is also called an
infection—and may lead to disease.
Ex- HepatitisA, influenza, Dengue etc.
8. Disease- occurs when an infection results in
any change from a state of health.
Disease is an abnormal state in which part or
all of the body is not properly adjusted or
incapable of performing its normal functions.
Ex- Common Cold, AIDS, Diabetes etc.
9. I) Infections may be divided in various ways-
1. Primary Infection- It is the initial infection
with a parasite in a host.
2. Secondary Infections- When a new parasite
sets up an infection in a host whose
resistance is lowered by a pre-existing
infectious disease.
10. 3. Re-infections- Subsequent infections by the
same parasite in the host
4. Focal Infection- a condition where, due to
infection or sepsis at localised sites such as
the appendix or tonsils.
5. Cross Infection- When in a patient already
suffering from a disease a new infection is set
up from another host or another external
source.
6. Cross-infections occurring in the hospitals
are called Nosocomial Infections.
11. 7. Iatrogenic infections- refers to physician-
induced infections resulting from
investigative, therapeutic or other producers.
13. II) Depending on whether the source of
infection is within or outside the host’s own
body, infection can be classified as
Endogenous Exogenous
14. III) Based on the clinical effects of infections, they
may be classified into
Inapparent Infection- is one where the clinical
effects are not apparent. (Subclinical infection)
Atypical Infection- is one in which the typical or
characteristic clinical manifestations of the
particular infectious disease are not present.
Latent Infection- is one in which some
parasites, following infection, may remain in the
tissues in a latent or hidden form, proliferating
and producing clinical disease when the host
resistance is lowered.
15. 1. Humans- the commonest source of infection.
Carrier- is a person who harbors the pathogenic
microorganism without suffering any ill effect
because of it.
Convalescent Carrier- is one who has recovered
from the disease and continues to harbor the
pathogen in his body.
Contact carrier- a person who acquires the
pathogen from a patient
Paradoxical carrier- a carrier who acquires the
pathogen from another carrier.
16. Depending on the duration of carriage,
carriers are classified as
Temporary carrier Chronic carrier
(a state lasts >6 months) (stage may last for several years)
Human carriers play an important role in the spread of such
diseases as AIDS, diphtheria, typhoid fever, hepatitis,
gonorrhea, amebic dysentery, and streptococcal infections.
17. 2. Animals- Both wild and domestic animals
are living reservoirs of microorganisms that
can cause human diseases.
Animals serve to maintain the parasite in
nature and act as the reservoir of human
infection—animals being asymptomatic.
(Reservoir hosts)
Infectious diseases transmitted from animals
to humans are called Zoonoses.
Zoonotic diseases may be bacterial, viral,
protozoal, helminthic or fungal.
18. 3. Insects-
blood sucking insects—Arthopod-borne
disease
Insects such as mosquitoes, ticks, mites, flies,
fleas and lice that transmit disease-Vectors.
Mechanical vectors- transmission is by
mechanical methods. Dysentery by domestic
fly
BiologicalVectors- pathogen multiplies in
the body of an insect. Anopheles mosquito in
malaria
19. 4. Soil and Water- some pathogens survive in the
soil for a very long of time.
i. Spores of tetanus bacilli-TETANUS
ii. Fungi and parasites such as roundworm and
hookworm
Water may act as the source of infection either due
to contamination with pathogenic microbes
(cholera vibrio) or
Due to the presence of aquatic vectors (cyclops)
5. Food- Contaminated food may act as a source of
infection.
Presence of pathogens (food poisoning by
Staphylococcus), or pre-existent infection in
meat/animal product (salmonellosis).
20. 1. Contact- may be direct or indirect
Direct contact transmission- (person-to-person
transmission)
is the direct transmission of an agent by physical
contact between its source and a susceptible
host; no intermediate object is involved.
Indirect contact transmission- occurs when the
agent of disease is transmitted from its reservoir
to a susceptible host by means of a nonliving
object.
The general term for any nonliving object
involved in the spread of an infection is a fomite.
21. Direct Contact
Ex- the common cold and influenza),
staphylococcal infections, hepatitis
A, measles, scarlet fever, and
sexually transmitted infections
Indirect Contact- (Fomites)
Contaminated syringes serve as
fomites in transmitting AIDS and
hepatitis B.
22. 2. Inhalation- respiratory infections such as
Influenza and tuberculosis are transmitted by
inhalation of the pathogen.
Are shed by patients into environment by
coughing, sneezing or while talking.
Droplet nuclei- Small droplets, under 0.1mm in
diameter, evaporate immediately to become
minute particles.
they are suspended in the air for long periods,
acting as sources of infection.
24. 3)VehicleTransmission- is the transmission of
disease agents by a medium, such as water, food, or
air. Other media include blood and other body
fluids, drugs, and intravenous fluids.
Ex-An outbreak of Salmonella infections caused by
vehicle transmission
Water Food Air
25.
26. Infections may be transmitted during
administration of injections, lumbar puncture
and catheterisation when meticulous care is
lacking.
Exchange transfusion, dialysis and organ
transplant surgery- high risk of infection.
Laboratory personnel handling infectious
material are at risk and special care should be
taken to prevent laboratory infection.
30. Bacteria should be able to enter the body.
Organism should be able to multiply in the
tissue.
They should be able to damage the tissue.
They must be capable to resist the host
defense.
31.
32. Pathogenecity is referred to the ability of
microbial species to produce disease.
Virulence is referred to the ability of
microbial strains to produce disease.
33. Adhesion:The initial event in the pathogenesis of
many infections is the attachment of the bacteria to
body surfaces.This attachment is specific reaction
between surface receptors and adhesive structures
on the surface of bacteria (adhesins).
35. Invasiveness is the ability of organism to
spread in a host tissue after establishing
infection. Less invasive organisms cause
localized lesion. Highly invasive organisms
cause generalized infection (septicemia).
Toxigenicity. Bacteria produce two types of
toxins – exotoxins & endotoxins
36.
37. Heat labile protein.
Diffuse readily into the surrounding medium.
Highly potent, e.g. 3 kg botulinum can kill all the
inhabitants of world.
They are generally formed by Gr+ bacteria and also by
Gr- organisms like Shigella,V.cholerae, E.coli.
Exotoxin is specifically neutralized antitoxin.
Can be separated from culture by filtration.
Action is enzymatic and it has specific tissue affinity.
Specific pharmacological effects for each exotoxin.
Cannot cause pyrexia in a host.
Can be toxoided.
38. Proteins polysaccharide lipid complex heat
stable.
Forms part of cell wall (don’t diffuse into the
medium).
Obtained only by cell lysis.
They have no enzymatic action.
Effect is non-specific action.
No specific tissue affinity.
Active only in large doses 5 to 25 mg.
Weakly antigenic.
Neutralization by antibody ineffective.
Cannot be toxoided.
Produce in Gram negative bacteria.
39.
40. Communicability is the ability of parasite to
spread from one host to another. It determines
the survival and distribution of organism in a
community.
Other bacterial products-
1) Coagulase (S.aureus) which prevents
phagocytosis by forming fibrin barrier around
bacteria.
2) Fibrinolysin promotes the spread of infection by
breaking down the fibrin barrier in tissues.
41. 3) Hyaluronidase split hyaluronic acid
(component of connective tissue).
4) Leucocidins damage polymorphonuclear
leucocytes.
5) Ig A1 proteases: split IgA and inactivates its
antibody activity.
6) Hemolysin is produced by some organisms
capable of destroying erythrocytes.
42.
43. Capsulated bacteria like Pneumococcus,
K.pneumoniae and H.influenzae stand
phagocytosis
Surface antigen, e.g.Vi-antigen of S. typhi
and K- antigen of E.coli resisted phagocytosis
and lytic activity of complement.
45. The minimum infection dose (MID) or
minimum lethal dose (MLD) is the minimum
number of organism required to produce
clinical evidence of infection or dearth of
susceptible animal.
46. Vibrio cholerae is effective orally. No effect
when it is introduced subcutaneously.
Streptococci can initiate infection whatever
be the mode of entry.
47. Infectious diseases may be localized or
generalized. Localized infections may be
superficial or deep-seated.
Circulation of bacteria in the blood is
known as bacteremia (viruses – virusemia
48. Septicemia is the condition where bacteria
circulate and multiply in the blood, form
toxic products and cause swinging type of
fever.
Pyemia is a condition where pyogenic
bacteria produce septicemia with multiple
abscesses in the internal organs such as the
spleen, liver and kidney.
49. Depending on the spread of infectious disease
in the community they may be classified into
different types.
Endemic diseases are ones that are constantly
present in a particular area. Typhoid fever is
endemic in most parts of India. An epidemic
disease is one that spreads rapidly, involving
many persons in an area at the same time.
Influenza causes annual winter epidemics in
the cold countries.
50. A pandemic is an epidemic that spreads
through many areas of the world involving
very large numbers of persons within a short
period (Influenza, cholera, plaque).
Epidemics vary in the rapidity of spread.
Waterborne disease such as cholera and
hepatitis may cause explosive outbreaks,
while disease, which spreads by person-to-
person contact evolve more slowly
51. Ananthanarayana and Paniker’s, Textbook of
Microbiology, 9th edition.
Kuby’s Immunology.
52.
53.
54. 1) Adhesins can be found on
A. host cells.
B. viruses.
C. bacterial pili and capsules.
D. cells at the portal of entry.
55. 2)Which one of the following is NOT true of
exotoxins?
A.They are proteins.
B.They are part of cell wall structure.
C.They are released from live bacterial cells.
D.They trigger antibody production.
56. 3) A zoonosis is a disease
A. transmitted from humans to animals.
B. spread from animals to humans.
C. transmitted between wild and domestic
animals.
D. spread between wild animals.
57. 4)Which one of the following is an example of
an indirect method of disease transmission?
A. Coughing
B. Droplet transmission
C. A mosquito bite
D. An animal bite
58. 5) If a person has recovered from a disease but
continues to shed disease agents, that person
is a
A. vector.
B. fomite.
C. vehicle.
D. carrier.
59. 1) Summarize the differences between
exotoxins and endotoxins as virulence
factors associated with disease.
2) What is a nosocomial infection?
3) Define epidemic, endemic and pandemic
with examples.
4) Define carrier with example.
5) What are fomites? Give examples.