Biopesticide
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This document discusses biopesticides, which include biological materials and organisms that can be formulated as pesticides. It focuses on microbial pesticides including bacteria like Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), fungi such as Beauveria bassiana, viruses, and entomopathogenic nematodes. Bt forms crystal proteins that are toxic to pest caterpillars when ingested. Fungal pesticides act through enzymes and antibiotics. The document also covers the production, advantages, and disadvantages of various microbial pesticides.
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The document discusses biopesticides as a natural alternative to chemical pesticides. It defines biopesticides as products made from minerals, bacteria, plants or animals that can control pests. Biopesticides are classified into microbial, plant, and biochemical pesticides. Microbial pesticides include bacteria like Bacillus thuringiensis, viruses, and fungi. Plant pesticides involve introducing pesticide genes into plants. Biochemical pesticides use pheromones or plant extracts. Biopesticides have advantages like specificity, low amounts needed, and low risk of pest resistance, but their effects can be slower than chemical pesticides.
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Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a naturally occurring soil bacterium that produces crystal proteins during sporulation that are toxic to certain insect orders. Various Bt subspecies produce different toxins targeting Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, or Diptera. The toxins work by forming ion channels in the gut of susceptible insects, which leads to cell damage and death. Bt has been used widely as a biological insecticide by spraying spores to control pests like cabbage worms, gypsy moths, and spruce budworm. It is effective when eaten and breaks down quickly in the environment to avoid insect resistance.
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Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil-dwelling bacterium that produces crystal proteins during sporulation that have insecticidal properties. Different Bt strains produce different crystal proteins that are toxic to various insect orders. The crystals are ingested by insect larvae and the toxins bind to receptors in the gut, forming pores that cause cell death. Bt is commonly used as a biological insecticide and its genes have been inserted into genetically modified crops, providing resistance against insect pests.
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This document discusses the production of biopesticides as an alternative to synthetic pesticides. It describes various types of biopesticides including those derived from microorganisms like Bacillus thuringiensis, fungi, viruses and nematodes. The document outlines the manufacturing process for biopesticides including using solid-state fermentation to produce fungal conidia. It also discusses some commonly used biopesticides like pyrethrum, neem and pheromones. The benefits of biopesticides over chemical pesticides are noted and future research opportunities around nano-enabled biopesticide formulations are proposed.
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This document provides an introduction to biopesticides, their types and uses. It discusses that biopesticides are formulations made from naturally occurring substances that control pests through non-toxic mechanisms. The main types discussed are microbial pesticides, plant-incorporated protectants, biochemical pesticides, botanical pesticides, and biotic agents. Specific microbial pesticides described include Bacillus thuringiensis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Trichoderma fungi. The document concludes by stating that biopesticides are generally safer and more environmentally friendly than chemical pesticides, though they may be less effective and require suitable conditions.
PGPR
Thank you for the presentation. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria have great potential to enhance agricultural sustainability.
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Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). This bacterium is also a key source of genes for transgenic expression to provide pest resistance in plants and microorganisms as pest control agents in so-called genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
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The rhizosphere is the region of soil surrounding plant roots that is influenced by root secretions like mucilage, exudates, and lysates. It contains many microorganisms in complex relationships with the plant roots. Root secretions, collectively known as rhizodeposition, enrich the soil environment and stimulate microbial growth in the rhizosphere compared to bulk soil, as measured by the R:S ratio of microorganisms. Rhizodeposition includes a variety of organic compounds that influence soil nutrients and microbes.
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Biological control is the suppression of one organism by another. There are two modes of mechanisms namely direct and indirect. Here I focused on the direct mechanisms such as parasitism, predatism, antibiotic-mediated suppression, lytic enzymes and unregulated-waste products. with the help of these various direct mechanisms, the bio-control agents will compete the pathogen's activity.
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This document summarizes the production of biopesticides. It discusses that biopesticides are derived from animals, plants, and microorganisms and are less toxic than chemical pesticides. Some important microbial biopesticides produced include Bacillus thuringiensis, Agrobacterium radiobacter, and pheromones. The production process involves raw materials, fermentation reactors, purification systems, drying, packaging, and waste treatment. While biopesticides have advantages like specificity and low environmental impact, they also have disadvantages like slow effect and lack of persistence.
Pgpr
The document discusses Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR), including their importance and role in agriculture. It defines PGPR, classifies them into two types, and describes their mechanisms of action such as nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, siderophore production, and phytohormone production. The document outlines PGPR's role as phytostimulators, in abiotic stress tolerance, as biofertilizers, and biopesticides. It discusses the commercialization and future research of PGPR to potentially replace chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
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This document provides an overview of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). It discusses that PGPR are a group of soil bacteria that colonize plant roots and enhance plant growth directly or indirectly. Direct mechanisms include biological nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, phytohormone production, siderophore production, and antibiotic production. Indirect mechanisms include inducing systemic resistance in plants, production of lytic enzymes, and stress tolerance effects. The document reviews the specific mechanisms of several important PGPR functions and commercially available PGPR products.
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Microbial insecticides offer an alternative to synthetic chemical insecticides for pest control. They include bacteria like Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), fungi, viruses, protozoa, nematodes, and actinomycetes. Bt is the most widely used and produces crystal proteins that are toxic once ingested by the target insect. Other common microbial insecticides include Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, nuclear polyhedrosis viruses, and the actinomycete insecticides avermectins, milbemycins, and spinosad. Microbial insecticides have advantages like being non-toxic to humans and wildlife but also have disadvantages like being pest-
BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS 2013.ppt
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a gram-positive bacteria that produces crystal proteins during sporulation. These crystal proteins, also known as delta endotoxins, have insecticidal properties. There are over 80 subspecies of Bt identified based on flagellum antigens and other characteristics. Bt was first isolated in 1901 in Japan as the cause of silkworm disease. It was later used commercially as a pesticide starting in the 1920s. The crystal proteins are encoded by cry genes, which are located on plasmids in most Bt strains. These cry genes have been classified into different groups based on amino acid sequences and insect target ranges. The crystal proteins are activated in the insect midg
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This document discusses biopesticides and their advantages over conventional chemical pesticides. It defines biopesticides as pesticides derived from natural materials like animals, plants, bacteria and certain minerals. The document then covers various types of biopesticides including biochemical pesticides that use semiochemicals, hormones and plant regulators; microbial pesticides that use bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoa; and plant-incorporated protectants that use genetic engineering to induce pest resistance. Examples are provided for different biopesticides and their modes of action are explained, highlighting their effectiveness and eco-friendly nature compared to chemical pesticides.
Biopesticides
Plant extracts and bacteria like Bacillus thuringiensis were among the earliest biopesticides. While biopesticides saw limited use with the rise of chemical pesticides, there are now over 245 registered biopesticide ingredients. Biopesticides are generally less toxic than chemical pesticides and often affect only the target pest. They can be effective in small amounts but require knowledgeable application as part of integrated pest management. Common biopesticides are derived from bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa, yeasts, and plants.
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Viruses are being explored as potential biopesticides to control insect pests. The major viruses investigated are baculoviruses, which primarily infect lepidopteran insects. Baculoviruses are classified as nucleopolyhedroviruses (NPVs) or granuloviruses (GVs) depending on how their virions are occluded. NPVs occlude virions in large polyhedral bodies, while GVs occlude individual virions. These viruses replicate in the nucleus or cytoplasm of infected insects and cause symptoms like discoloration, lethargy, and death. Large-scale production can be done in vivo by applying the virus to host insects or in vitro by infecting insect
Biopesticides
Stressing more about microbial pesticides
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3. Fungal biopesticides
4. Protozoan biopesticides
Challenges
Advantages and disadvantages of microbial biopesticides
Biological control of plant pathogens
My recent lecture on Biological control of plant pathogens. It was a lecture presented in introductory to plant pathology undergraduate class.
Bio-control agents: Insecticidal toxins of Bacillus thuringiensis
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a naturally occurring soil bacterium that produces crystal proteins during sporulation that are toxic to certain insect orders. Various Bt subspecies produce different toxins targeting Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, or Diptera. The toxins work by forming ion channels in the gut of susceptible insects, which leads to cell damage and death. Bt has been used widely as a biological insecticide by spraying spores to control pests like cabbage worms, gypsy moths, and spruce budworm. It is effective when eaten and breaks down quickly in the environment to avoid insect resistance.
Microbial insecticidals
Introduction: The use of microbes or its products against to control insects/pets is called Microbial Insecticides.
Microbes & microbial products used as insecticides.
Less harmful, fewer environmental effects.
Microbial insecticides are biological preparations that are often delivered in ways similar to conventional chemical insecticides.
Can be applied as sprays, dusts, liquid, wet-table powders, or granules
Bacillus thurengiensis
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil-dwelling bacterium that produces crystal proteins during sporulation that have insecticidal properties. Different Bt strains produce different crystal proteins that are toxic to various insect orders. The crystals are ingested by insect larvae and the toxins bind to receptors in the gut, forming pores that cause cell death. Bt is commonly used as a biological insecticide and its genes have been inserted into genetically modified crops, providing resistance against insect pests.
Production of biopesticides
This document discusses the production of biopesticides as an alternative to synthetic pesticides. It describes various types of biopesticides including those derived from microorganisms like Bacillus thuringiensis, fungi, viruses and nematodes. The document outlines the manufacturing process for biopesticides including using solid-state fermentation to produce fungal conidia. It also discusses some commonly used biopesticides like pyrethrum, neem and pheromones. The benefits of biopesticides over chemical pesticides are noted and future research opportunities around nano-enabled biopesticide formulations are proposed.
Biopesticides
This document provides an introduction to biopesticides, their types and uses. It discusses that biopesticides are formulations made from naturally occurring substances that control pests through non-toxic mechanisms. The main types discussed are microbial pesticides, plant-incorporated protectants, biochemical pesticides, botanical pesticides, and biotic agents. Specific microbial pesticides described include Bacillus thuringiensis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Trichoderma fungi. The document concludes by stating that biopesticides are generally safer and more environmentally friendly than chemical pesticides, though they may be less effective and require suitable conditions.
PGPR
Thank you for the presentation. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria have great potential to enhance agricultural sustainability.
Bacillus thurigenesis
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). This bacterium is also a key source of genes for transgenic expression to provide pest resistance in plants and microorganisms as pest control agents in so-called genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
Biopesticides
Biopesticide refers introduction of any living organism such as microorganism including bacteria , fungi , nematodes viruses, protozoa and parasitoids and predators that controls pests by biological non-toxic means e.g. Trichoderma sp., Bacillus thuringiensis, Beauveria etc.
Endophytes
Endophytic microbes live within plant tissues without causing harm and can benefit plants through various mechanisms. This document discusses endophytic bacteria and fungi, their transmission within plants, and how they can promote plant growth, act as biocontrol agents, and increase stress tolerance in plants. Specifically, endophytes produce plant hormones, fix nitrogen, make nutrients more available, and induce systemic resistance to pathogens or tolerance to stresses like drought. Their interactions with plants demonstrate potential for agriculture and phytoremediation.
Rhizosphere
The rhizosphere is the region of soil surrounding plant roots that is influenced by root secretions like mucilage, exudates, and lysates. It contains many microorganisms in complex relationships with the plant roots. Root secretions, collectively known as rhizodeposition, enrich the soil environment and stimulate microbial growth in the rhizosphere compared to bulk soil, as measured by the R:S ratio of microorganisms. Rhizodeposition includes a variety of organic compounds that influence soil nutrients and microbes.
Mechanisms of Biological Control
Biological control is the suppression of one organism by another. There are two modes of mechanisms namely direct and indirect. Here I focused on the direct mechanisms such as parasitism, predatism, antibiotic-mediated suppression, lytic enzymes and unregulated-waste products. with the help of these various direct mechanisms, the bio-control agents will compete the pathogen's activity.
Production of biopestcides
This document summarizes the production of biopesticides. It discusses that biopesticides are derived from animals, plants, and microorganisms and are less toxic than chemical pesticides. Some important microbial biopesticides produced include Bacillus thuringiensis, Agrobacterium radiobacter, and pheromones. The production process involves raw materials, fermentation reactors, purification systems, drying, packaging, and waste treatment. While biopesticides have advantages like specificity and low environmental impact, they also have disadvantages like slow effect and lack of persistence.
Pgpr
The document discusses Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR), including their importance and role in agriculture. It defines PGPR, classifies them into two types, and describes their mechanisms of action such as nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, siderophore production, and phytohormone production. The document outlines PGPR's role as phytostimulators, in abiotic stress tolerance, as biofertilizers, and biopesticides. It discusses the commercialization and future research of PGPR to potentially replace chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
Rhizosphere & phyllosphere
he rhizosphere is the narrow region of soil or substrate that is directly influenced by root secretions and associated soil microorganisms known as the root microbiome.
The phyllosphere is a term used in microbiology to refer to the total above-ground portions of plants as habitat for microorganisms.
PGPR - Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria
This document provides an overview of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). It discusses that PGPR are a group of soil bacteria that colonize plant roots and enhance plant growth directly or indirectly. Direct mechanisms include biological nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, phytohormone production, siderophore production, and antibiotic production. Indirect mechanisms include inducing systemic resistance in plants, production of lytic enzymes, and stress tolerance effects. The document reviews the specific mechanisms of several important PGPR functions and commercially available PGPR products.
microbial insecticides
Microbial insecticides offer an alternative to synthetic chemical insecticides for pest control. They include bacteria like Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), fungi, viruses, protozoa, nematodes, and actinomycetes. Bt is the most widely used and produces crystal proteins that are toxic once ingested by the target insect. Other common microbial insecticides include Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, nuclear polyhedrosis viruses, and the actinomycete insecticides avermectins, milbemycins, and spinosad. Microbial insecticides have advantages like being non-toxic to humans and wildlife but also have disadvantages like being pest-
BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS 2013.ppt
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a gram-positive bacteria that produces crystal proteins during sporulation. These crystal proteins, also known as delta endotoxins, have insecticidal properties. There are over 80 subspecies of Bt identified based on flagellum antigens and other characteristics. Bt was first isolated in 1901 in Japan as the cause of silkworm disease. It was later used commercially as a pesticide starting in the 1920s. The crystal proteins are encoded by cry genes, which are located on plasmids in most Bt strains. These cry genes have been classified into different groups based on amino acid sequences and insect target ranges. The crystal proteins are activated in the insect midg
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Environmental health is the branch of public health concerned with all aspects of the natural and built environment affecting human health. In order to effectively control factors that may affect health, the requirements that must be met in order to create a healthy environment must be determined.[1] The major sub-disciplines of environmental health are environmental science, toxicology, environmental epidemiology, and environmental and occupational medicine.[2]
Definitions
WHO definitions
Environmental health was defined in a 1989 document by the World Health Organization (WHO) as: Those aspects of human health and disease that are determined by factors in the environment.[citation needed] It is also referred to as the theory and practice of accessing and controlling factors in the environment that can potentially affect health.[citation needed]
A 1990 WHO document states that environmental health, as used by the WHO Regional Office for Europe, "includes both the direct pathological effects of chemicals, radiation and some biological agents, and the effects (often indirect) on health and well being of the broad physical, psychological, social and cultural environment, which includes housing, urban development, land use and transport."[3]
As of 2016, the WHO website on environmental health states that "Environmental health addresses all the physical, chemical, and biological factors external to a person, and all the related factors impacting behaviours. It encompasses the assessment and control of those environmental factors that can potentially affect health. It is targeted towards preventing disease and creating health-supportive environments. This definition excludes behaviour not related to environment, as well as behaviour related to the social and cultural environment, as well as genetics."[4]
The WHO has also defined environmental health services as "those services which implement environmental health policies through monitoring and control activities. They also carry out that role by promoting the improvement of environmental parameters and by encouraging the use of environmentally friendly and healthy technologies and behaviors. They also have a leading role in developing and suggesting new policy areas."[5][6]
Other considerations
The term environmental medicine may be seen as a medical specialty, or branch of the broader field of environmental health.[7][8] Terminology is not fully established, and in many European countries they are used interchangeably.[9]
Children's environmental health is the academic discipline that studies how environmental exposures in early life—chemical, nutritional, and social—influence health and development in childhood and across the entire human life span.[10]
Other terms referring to or concerning environmental health include environmental public health and health protection.
Disciplines
Five basic disciplines generally contribute to the field of environmental health: environmental epidemiology,
Applications of genetic engineering techniques in agriculture byB. DEVADATHA
Genetic engineering techniques can be used to improve plants for agriculture. Methods like Agrobacterium transfer and biolistic bombardment are used to insert genes. This allows traits like insect and disease resistance, herbicide tolerance, nutritional enhancement, and more. However, there are also risks to the environment and human health that must be considered through safety testing and regulation. While GM crops have potential benefits, caution is needed to avoid unintended harm.
Applicationsofgeneticengineeringtechniquesinagriculturebydatha 131009204300-p...
Genetic engineering techniques can be used to improve plants for agriculture. Methods like Agrobacterium transfer and biolistic bombardment are used to insert genes. This allows traits like insect and disease resistance, herbicide tolerance, nutritional enhancement, and more. However, there are also risks to the environment and human health that must be considered through safety testing and regulation. While GM crops have potential benefits, caution is needed to avoid unintended harm.
Microorganisms Friend OR foe- made by saksham gupta
Microorganisms can be beneficial or harmful. Beneficial microorganisms are used in food production like bread and wine, as well as medicine production including vaccines, antibiotics, and insulin. They help decompose waste and enrich soil fertility. However, some microorganisms cause diseases in humans, animals, and plants by spreading through various means. Food is also spoiled by microbial activity if not properly preserved through methods like heating, cooling, salting, drying, canning, and adding chemical preservatives.
Biological control of pest
the topic which contains the basic aspects regarding biological control of pest and also mass production aspects of some biological entomopathogenic agents.and different types of biological agents in management of pest
Biological control of pest
effective and easy method of studying
really very helpful for students and helps increase knowledge
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Vaccines are produced on a large scale to effectively immunize large populations. This process involves selecting a proper virus or bacteria strain, growing the microorganism, purifying and isolating the antigen, inactivating the microorganism so it cannot cause disease but still provokes an immune response, and formulating the vaccine by adding stabilizers, preservatives and suspending fluids before quality control testing. Common inactivation methods include using solvents/detergents to disrupt viral envelopes, heat (pasteurization) to denature the pathogen, acidic pH treatment, or UV light to damage genetic material and prevent replication.
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Applications of genetic engineering techniques in agriculture byB. DEVADATHA
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Biopesticide
- 1. BIOPESTICIDES Dr. N. BANU ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR VELS UNIVERSITY
- 2. BIOPESTICIDES Biopesticides includes any biological material and organisms, which can be formulated as pesticides for the management of pests. Botanical pesticides (active compounds extracts from neem, pongamia, etc). Microbial pesticieds (whole organisms, secretory or excretary products).
- 3. Microbial pesticides/Microbial Insecticides Population of pathogenic or predatory microorganisms that are antagonistic towards particular pest population provide a natural means of controlling pest population. IPM: Integrated Pest Mangement Rather than eradication we are keeping the pest at a non-injurious level.
- 4. Characteristic of Microbial pesticides • Virulent and causes diseases to the pest at a recommended conc. • It should not be susceptible to the environment. • Pest specific • Harmless to humans, plants and animals.
- 5. Adv. And Disadv. Of microbial pesticides Adv: Ecofriendly, ecosafety, biodegrable. Compatible with biocontrol agents. Host specific. No. devt. Of resistant. Cost effective No waiting time for harvest. Well suited to rural areas. Disadv: Slow action. Brief self life Time consumption for high production.
- 6. Microbial insecticides Bacterial pesticides: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) B. Subtilis (Bs) Viral pesticides: Nuclear polyhedral virus (NPV) Granulosis viruses (GV) Fungal pesticides: Entamogenous fungi: Beauveria bassiana Metarhizium anisopliae Verticillium lecanii Nomuraea rileyi Antagonistic fungi: Trichoderma sp. Gliocladium sp. Anatagonistic bacteria: Pseudomonas fluorescens Bacillus subtilis Mycoherbicides Insect repellants Pheromones.
- 7. BACTERIAL PESTICIDES Endospore forming – Bacillus, Clostridium Non-endospore forming – Pseudomonas Enterobacter Proteus Serratia Xenorhabdus.
- 8. Bt Tested against 140 insect sp. (Lepidotera, Hymenoptera, Diptera and Coleoptera) 12 groups of Bt. – forms protein crystal inclusion bodies. Formation of endotoxin. Soluble in alkaline condition, not soluble in water, neutral or acidic pH. Caterpillar larvae (pest) Midgut of this larvae is alkaline. Crystal is dissolved in the midgut and digested. This digested protein attacks the gut wall and looses the epithelial wall and leading to gut paralysis. LD50 value = <0.9 µg/g of larvae.
- 9. PRODUCTION OF Bt • Bt gene introduced into plant or plant associated microorganisms via rDNA technology. • Submerged fermentation. Beet molasses, csl, calcium carbonate. Semisolid fermentation. Wheat bran: aerobic, 36-48 hrs, drying and grinding the bran cake. Commercial name: DIPEL, DOOM.
- 10. Bt in the field • Only short term control • Do not persist from year to year • Before spry, the leaves are covered well. • Bt inactivated by sunlight & uv to avoid this emulsifying agents, stickers or binders and uv protectants can be used.
- 11. Bacillus popilliae and Bacillus lentimorbus • Against milky disease in Japan beetle. • Ingestion of viable spores by larvae. • Germination in the gut • Vet. Cells penetrate the gut. • Enter the body cavity. • Removes all nutrients from blood. • Death.
- 12. Viruses as insect pests Insect viruses present in protein coats which are insoluble in water. This protein crystals protect the viruses for many years. Polyhedrosis virus: many virus particle embedded in protein crystal. Present in the cell nucleus – Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV). Present in the host cytoplasm – cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (CPV). Granulosis virus: only one virus per protein crystals. NGV and CGV.
- 13. Mechanism of action • Ingestion of NPV/GV by larvae • Multiplication of viruses in the larvae and make them lethargic • Affected larvae become sluggish and stop feeding • Die. TAIVIRODAE – NPV contros bollworm, budworm, Helicoverpa armigera.
- 14. Production of insect virus Live insects are needed. Bollworm larvae are raised on a semi-synthetic medium (casein, sucrose, wheat germ, growth factors, agar) Chemicals – formalin, sorbic acid, aureomycin – used to inhibit the bacteria, yeast and fungi. Diet – inoculated by caterpillars. Viruses sprayed on the diet which replicates on the caterpillars to 5000 – 10,000 times in 5-7 days. Infected caterpillars – suctioned and treated with water , filtered, centrifuged, precipitated and spry dried. Packaged and sold.
- 15. FUNGAL PESTICIDES Beauvaria, Metarrhizium, Entomophtora, Hirsutella and Trichoderma. Trichoderma: Rapid growth High sporulation Production of antibiotics (gliotoxin, viridin) Antagonist. Commercial name: BINABTSEEPIC , against soil borne diseases. Trichoderma harzianum against Rhizoctonia solanii, Fusarium sp. Air borne against Botrytis cinerea, Puccinia. Seed borne against Damping off of pea. Fruit borne against Botrytis rot of strawberry, Colletotrichum.
- 16. Mechanism of action Chitinases and β-1,3 glucanases. Mode of application: Mycelial form Production: Liquid media, semi-solid medium Commercial products: ANTAGON, BIOCURE-F, BIODERMA, TRICHOCAN. Mixed with organic manures, composts, dry cow dungs, fym, neem cake.
- 17. Entomopathogenic nematodes • Steinernematidae • Heterorhabditidae • Long term survival • Symbiotic association with bacteria: • Steinernema with Xenorhabdus • Heterorhabda with Photorhabdus