1. Yeasts are single-celled microorganisms that reproduce through asexual budding.
2. Yeasts are important microorganisms that are used to make bread and alcoholic beverages through fermentation.
3. During fermentation, yeasts respire anaerobically, consuming sugars and producing alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Plants are adapted for photosynthesis through features like broad, thin leaves with a waxy cuticle and stomata. Leaves contain chloroplasts and veins that transport water and nutrients. Photosynthesis produces oxygen and glucose from carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight. Transpiration creates a water flow through xylem vessels from roots to leaves. Intensive farming aims to maximize food production but can harm the environment through pesticide use and loss of habitats. Alternatives include organic farming, hydroponics, and biological pest control.
The document discusses the human circulatory system. It begins by explaining why humans need a transport system to carry nutrients to cells and waste away from cells. It then describes the components of blood, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. It discusses the different types of blood vessels - arteries, veins, and capillaries. It also covers double circulation in mammals, the structure and function of the heart, blood pressure, blood groups, and common heart diseases like atherosclerosis.
Homeostasis refers to the body's ability to maintain stable internal conditions such as temperature and glucose levels. It is regulated by negative feedback mechanisms. For example, temperature receptors in the skin sense changes and send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain. If body temperature rises, the hypothalamus activates sweating and blood vessel dilation to cool the body through evaporation. Conversely, it triggers shivering and vessel constriction when temperatures fall to conserve heat. Various organs also help regulate variables through hormones, like the liver controlling glucose with insulin secretion. The skin plays an important role in homeostasis through insulation, sweating, and temperature reception.
This document provides notes on AQA GCSE Biology for Unit 2. It covers several topics:
- Cells and cell structures, including the structures and functions of plant, animal, yeast and bacterial cells.
- Tissues, organs and organ systems, explaining how cells differentiate and organize into tissues, organs, and systems to carry out functions.
- Photosynthesis, outlining the process by which plants use light energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water.
- Organisms and their environment, discussing physical factors that affect organisms and methods to collect quantitative data on populations and distributions.
- Proteins, explaining their structures and functions, including as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and structural components.
Hello guys this is the notes of the chapter life processes in detail with all the diagrams of this chapter. I hope this PPT will help you to prepare for your examinations.
I hope you all are safe in your home
stay home, stay safe, stay connected
thank you.
ALL THE ORGANISMS NEED TO TRANSPORT WATER, FOOD, MINERALS, OXYGEN TO DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BODY. THEY HELP IN THE GROWTH AND RESPIRATION OF THE CELLS. THE WASTE PRODUCTS ARE TRANSPORTED TO THE EXCRETORY ORGANS FOR ELIMINATION FROM THE BODY. PLANTS AND ANIMALS HAVE DIFFERENT ORGANS AND PROCESSES FOR THE TRANSPORTATION OF SUBSTANCES.
Transportation in animals and plants. Circulatory system in humans. Blood pressure and Heart attack. Excretory system in humans. Vascular tissue in plants.
IGCSE Biology Edexcel (9-1)- Co-ordination and response (humans)ssnm88
The document provides information about coordination and response in humans. It discusses the nervous system and endocrine system. The nervous system uses electrical signals and neurons to trigger fast responses. The endocrine system uses hormones to trigger slower responses. Key hormones like insulin, adrenaline, testosterone and estrogen are discussed. Their roles, effects and sources are outlined. The differences between the nervous and endocrine systems are compared.
Plants are adapted for photosynthesis through features like broad, thin leaves with a waxy cuticle and stomata. Leaves contain chloroplasts and veins that transport water and nutrients. Photosynthesis produces oxygen and glucose from carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight. Transpiration creates a water flow through xylem vessels from roots to leaves. Intensive farming aims to maximize food production but can harm the environment through pesticide use and loss of habitats. Alternatives include organic farming, hydroponics, and biological pest control.
The document discusses the human circulatory system. It begins by explaining why humans need a transport system to carry nutrients to cells and waste away from cells. It then describes the components of blood, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. It discusses the different types of blood vessels - arteries, veins, and capillaries. It also covers double circulation in mammals, the structure and function of the heart, blood pressure, blood groups, and common heart diseases like atherosclerosis.
Homeostasis refers to the body's ability to maintain stable internal conditions such as temperature and glucose levels. It is regulated by negative feedback mechanisms. For example, temperature receptors in the skin sense changes and send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain. If body temperature rises, the hypothalamus activates sweating and blood vessel dilation to cool the body through evaporation. Conversely, it triggers shivering and vessel constriction when temperatures fall to conserve heat. Various organs also help regulate variables through hormones, like the liver controlling glucose with insulin secretion. The skin plays an important role in homeostasis through insulation, sweating, and temperature reception.
This document provides notes on AQA GCSE Biology for Unit 2. It covers several topics:
- Cells and cell structures, including the structures and functions of plant, animal, yeast and bacterial cells.
- Tissues, organs and organ systems, explaining how cells differentiate and organize into tissues, organs, and systems to carry out functions.
- Photosynthesis, outlining the process by which plants use light energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water.
- Organisms and their environment, discussing physical factors that affect organisms and methods to collect quantitative data on populations and distributions.
- Proteins, explaining their structures and functions, including as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and structural components.
Hello guys this is the notes of the chapter life processes in detail with all the diagrams of this chapter. I hope this PPT will help you to prepare for your examinations.
I hope you all are safe in your home
stay home, stay safe, stay connected
thank you.
ALL THE ORGANISMS NEED TO TRANSPORT WATER, FOOD, MINERALS, OXYGEN TO DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BODY. THEY HELP IN THE GROWTH AND RESPIRATION OF THE CELLS. THE WASTE PRODUCTS ARE TRANSPORTED TO THE EXCRETORY ORGANS FOR ELIMINATION FROM THE BODY. PLANTS AND ANIMALS HAVE DIFFERENT ORGANS AND PROCESSES FOR THE TRANSPORTATION OF SUBSTANCES.
Transportation in animals and plants. Circulatory system in humans. Blood pressure and Heart attack. Excretory system in humans. Vascular tissue in plants.
IGCSE Biology Edexcel (9-1)- Co-ordination and response (humans)ssnm88
The document provides information about coordination and response in humans. It discusses the nervous system and endocrine system. The nervous system uses electrical signals and neurons to trigger fast responses. The endocrine system uses hormones to trigger slower responses. Key hormones like insulin, adrenaline, testosterone and estrogen are discussed. Their roles, effects and sources are outlined. The differences between the nervous and endocrine systems are compared.
- A balanced diet should include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, water and fibre. These components have various functions like providing energy, growth and repair.
- The human digestive system includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and pancreas. Food moves through the system by peristalsis and is broken down by enzymes.
- Factors like age, activity levels and pregnancy affect energy requirements. Sedentary lifestyles require less energy than active ones. Calorimetry can be used to investigate the energy content of foods.
The document describes the structures and functions of several types of cells:
- Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the body and carbon dioxide from the body back to the lungs. They are large with hemoglobin and no nucleus.
- White blood cells defend the body by finding and destroying bacteria and other pathogens.
- Nerve cells transmit nerve impulses through branched extensions covered in a fatty sheath.
- Sperm cells carry male genetic material and have a tail for swimming to find an egg.
- Root hair cells absorb water and minerals from soil using their large surface area and thin walls. They lack chloroplasts.
- Palisade cells in leaves perform photosynthesis using their tall shape
The document discusses diffusion and osmosis. It defines diffusion as the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration down a gradient. Osmosis is defined as the specific movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from an area of high water potential to low water potential. The document provides examples of osmosis in plant and animal cells and explains how osmosis allows plant cells to become turgid or plasmolyzed depending on the direction of water flow. Active transport is also introduced as the movement of molecules against a concentration gradient.
The document summarizes the process of gas exchange in the human respiratory system. It describes the major organs involved, including the lungs, diaphragm, ribs, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. It explains how breathing in and out works via the contraction and relaxation of the intercostal muscles and diaphragm. The roles of ciliated cells and mucus in protecting the lungs are also outlined. Finally, it provides details on the composition differences between inspired and expired air.
The document discusses how plants obtain nutrients and transport them throughout their bodies. Plants get minerals, carbon dioxide, water, oxygen, and sunlight from their environment. Roots absorb water and minerals from the soil, while leaves facilitate gas exchange via diffusion and transpiration. Nutrients are transported within the plant via vascular bundles containing xylem and phloem cells specially adapted for transporting water, minerals, and sugars respectively.
A powerpoint designed for the South African Life Sciences syllabus for grade 11. Includes information about blood and it's transportation, the human heart, the lymph system etc. Hope it helps :)
The document discusses the key components of DNA, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins C and D. It provides information on their chemical composition, roles in the body, food sources, and common tests used to identify each one.
This document provides information about biological molecules and enzymes for an International GCSE Biology exam. It defines carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids as the three main types of biological molecules, and describes their structures and components. It also explains enzyme function using the lock and key theory and discusses how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in temperature and pH. Practical investigations are described for testing food samples for glucose, starch, protein and fat, as well as experiments on how enzyme activity of amylase is influenced by temperature and pH changes.
The document discusses how homeostasis is maintained in the body through various negative feedback systems. It provides examples of homeostasis for factors like temperature, pH, glucose, and water/salt content being kept constant. This allows enzymes to work effectively. It then discusses different mechanisms for regulating body temperature, such as blood vessels, hair, sweat glands, and metabolic rates. Large animals lose less heat than small animals due to lower surface area to volume ratios. Negative feedback systems involving insulin and glucagon help regulate blood glucose levels.
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions within an organism. Metabolic pathways consist of enzyme-catalyzed reactions organized into linear chains or cyclic pathways. Enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions by binding to substrates and altering their structure. Enzyme inhibitors can competitively or non-competitively bind to enzymes and reduce their activity. Metabolic pathways are regulated by end-product inhibition, which stops pathways once their product reaches a certain concentration. Databases can be used to screen chemicals and identify potential new drugs, like anti-malarial treatments. Rates of enzymatic reactions can be calculated from experimental data and plotted on graphs to determine inhibition type.
The document discusses homeostasis, which is the maintenance of a constant internal environment in the body. It provides examples of homeostasis mechanisms for controlling body temperature, blood glucose levels, and water levels. Negative feedback loops work to maintain a stable internal state when environmental conditions change. The kidneys and hormones like insulin and glucagon help regulate glucose and water levels. Plants also use mechanisms like stomata to control water balance and maintain homeostasis.
This document describes the circulatory systems of fish and mammals. It explains that fish have a single circulation where blood passes through the heart once to be oxygenated at the gills before circulating to the body. Mammals have a double circulation where blood passes through the heart twice - to the lungs to be oxygenated and then again to the body in separate circuits. The advantages of double circulation are that it increases blood pressure and flow to tissues, which is important for large mammals and those with high metabolic rates.
This document provides an overview of key biology concepts covered in IGCSE Biology. It discusses the seven characteristics of living things: movement, respiration, sensitivity, growth, reproduction, excretion and nutrition. It also covers cell structure, including differences between plant and animal cells. Additionally, it summarizes the five kingdoms of classification (Bacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plants, Animals) and mechanisms of transport across cell membranes, such as diffusion, osmosis and active transport.
Mr Exham IGCSE - Movement In And Out Of Cellsmrexham
This document is a PowerPoint presentation on the processes of diffusion, osmosis, and active transport that allow substances to move in and out of cells. It defines each process and explains how surface area, temperature, and concentration gradients affect their rates. It also describes a simple experiment demonstrating diffusion using a semipermeable membrane and solutions with different sugar concentrations.
The kidneys remove waste from the blood in the form of urea and regulate water and electrolyte balance. Each nephron acts as the functional unit of the kidney, filtering blood in the cortex and reabsorbing useful substances along the tubule in the medulla. Urine is stored in the bladder and released through the urethra. Dialysis can temporarily perform the functions of damaged kidneys by filtering blood through a semipermeable membrane. A kidney transplant is the best long term treatment but requires immunosuppressant drugs to prevent rejection by the recipient's immune system.
1. The document discusses the process of cellular respiration which releases energy from food in living cells. It occurs in three stages: breathing, internal respiration in the blood, and cellular respiration in cells.
2. Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to fully break down glucose, generating more ATP. Anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen, producing less ATP. It allows for short term energy needs like intense muscle activity.
3. The lungs take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide through breathing. Gases are exchanged between the alveoli and blood capillaries by diffusion down a concentration gradient.
This document provides an overview of anatomy and physiology. It defines anatomy as the study of the structure of the human body and physiology as the study of body function. It then describes the levels of structural organization from chemicals and cells to tissues, organs, organ systems, and the whole organism. Key body systems covered include the integumentary system, skeletal system, muscular system, and nervous system. For each system, it identifies main components and functions.
The document discusses the transport system in flowering plants. It describes the two main transport tissues - xylem and phloem. Xylem transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the stems and leaves. It consists of dead cells with thickened lignified walls. Phloem transports sucrose and amino acids from leaves to other plant parts. It consists of sieve tubes with companion cells. The document outlines the processes of water and nutrient absorption by root hairs, and the movement of water up the stem via transpiration pull, root pressure, and capillary action. It also discusses the importance and factors affecting transpiration.
1. Urea is produced in the liver from excess amino acids and is removed from the blood by the kidneys and excreted in urine. Carbon dioxide is produced during respiration and is removed from the body through exhalation in the lungs.
2. Egestion refers to the removal of undigested food from the body, while excretion is the removal of waste products from metabolic processes.
3. During deamination, amino acids are broken down in the liver into components, one of which is converted to urea while the other combines with carbon dioxide to form urea.
AQA Biology B3, Unit 3, full Detailed Revision NotesSaqib Ali
This document provides an overview of various topics related to biology including:
- The process of gas exchange that occurs in the lungs, gut, and plants via diffusion, osmosis, and active transport.
- How the circulatory system transports blood to and from the heart and lungs via arteries, veins, and capillaries to supply oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from tissues.
- The role of microorganisms like yeast and bacteria in food production processes like fermentation and culturing.
- Methods for large scale production of microbes and antibiotics as well as renewable energy sources like biogas.
Circadian rhythms and photoperiodism are important control systems in plants and animals. Circadian rhythms cause daily fluctuations in processes like melatonin production, while photoperiodism causes responses to changing day length like seed germination and flowering. Plants have evolved defenses against pathogens like producing toxic chemicals, and humans have exploited these by using plant-derived medicines. The immune system provides protection through acquired immunity from vaccines and antibodies from monoclonal antibodies. Key body systems like the kidneys and menstrual cycle are regulated by negative feedback of hormones.
- A balanced diet should include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, water and fibre. These components have various functions like providing energy, growth and repair.
- The human digestive system includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and pancreas. Food moves through the system by peristalsis and is broken down by enzymes.
- Factors like age, activity levels and pregnancy affect energy requirements. Sedentary lifestyles require less energy than active ones. Calorimetry can be used to investigate the energy content of foods.
The document describes the structures and functions of several types of cells:
- Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the body and carbon dioxide from the body back to the lungs. They are large with hemoglobin and no nucleus.
- White blood cells defend the body by finding and destroying bacteria and other pathogens.
- Nerve cells transmit nerve impulses through branched extensions covered in a fatty sheath.
- Sperm cells carry male genetic material and have a tail for swimming to find an egg.
- Root hair cells absorb water and minerals from soil using their large surface area and thin walls. They lack chloroplasts.
- Palisade cells in leaves perform photosynthesis using their tall shape
The document discusses diffusion and osmosis. It defines diffusion as the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration down a gradient. Osmosis is defined as the specific movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from an area of high water potential to low water potential. The document provides examples of osmosis in plant and animal cells and explains how osmosis allows plant cells to become turgid or plasmolyzed depending on the direction of water flow. Active transport is also introduced as the movement of molecules against a concentration gradient.
The document summarizes the process of gas exchange in the human respiratory system. It describes the major organs involved, including the lungs, diaphragm, ribs, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. It explains how breathing in and out works via the contraction and relaxation of the intercostal muscles and diaphragm. The roles of ciliated cells and mucus in protecting the lungs are also outlined. Finally, it provides details on the composition differences between inspired and expired air.
The document discusses how plants obtain nutrients and transport them throughout their bodies. Plants get minerals, carbon dioxide, water, oxygen, and sunlight from their environment. Roots absorb water and minerals from the soil, while leaves facilitate gas exchange via diffusion and transpiration. Nutrients are transported within the plant via vascular bundles containing xylem and phloem cells specially adapted for transporting water, minerals, and sugars respectively.
A powerpoint designed for the South African Life Sciences syllabus for grade 11. Includes information about blood and it's transportation, the human heart, the lymph system etc. Hope it helps :)
The document discusses the key components of DNA, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins C and D. It provides information on their chemical composition, roles in the body, food sources, and common tests used to identify each one.
This document provides information about biological molecules and enzymes for an International GCSE Biology exam. It defines carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids as the three main types of biological molecules, and describes their structures and components. It also explains enzyme function using the lock and key theory and discusses how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in temperature and pH. Practical investigations are described for testing food samples for glucose, starch, protein and fat, as well as experiments on how enzyme activity of amylase is influenced by temperature and pH changes.
The document discusses how homeostasis is maintained in the body through various negative feedback systems. It provides examples of homeostasis for factors like temperature, pH, glucose, and water/salt content being kept constant. This allows enzymes to work effectively. It then discusses different mechanisms for regulating body temperature, such as blood vessels, hair, sweat glands, and metabolic rates. Large animals lose less heat than small animals due to lower surface area to volume ratios. Negative feedback systems involving insulin and glucagon help regulate blood glucose levels.
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions within an organism. Metabolic pathways consist of enzyme-catalyzed reactions organized into linear chains or cyclic pathways. Enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions by binding to substrates and altering their structure. Enzyme inhibitors can competitively or non-competitively bind to enzymes and reduce their activity. Metabolic pathways are regulated by end-product inhibition, which stops pathways once their product reaches a certain concentration. Databases can be used to screen chemicals and identify potential new drugs, like anti-malarial treatments. Rates of enzymatic reactions can be calculated from experimental data and plotted on graphs to determine inhibition type.
The document discusses homeostasis, which is the maintenance of a constant internal environment in the body. It provides examples of homeostasis mechanisms for controlling body temperature, blood glucose levels, and water levels. Negative feedback loops work to maintain a stable internal state when environmental conditions change. The kidneys and hormones like insulin and glucagon help regulate glucose and water levels. Plants also use mechanisms like stomata to control water balance and maintain homeostasis.
This document describes the circulatory systems of fish and mammals. It explains that fish have a single circulation where blood passes through the heart once to be oxygenated at the gills before circulating to the body. Mammals have a double circulation where blood passes through the heart twice - to the lungs to be oxygenated and then again to the body in separate circuits. The advantages of double circulation are that it increases blood pressure and flow to tissues, which is important for large mammals and those with high metabolic rates.
This document provides an overview of key biology concepts covered in IGCSE Biology. It discusses the seven characteristics of living things: movement, respiration, sensitivity, growth, reproduction, excretion and nutrition. It also covers cell structure, including differences between plant and animal cells. Additionally, it summarizes the five kingdoms of classification (Bacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plants, Animals) and mechanisms of transport across cell membranes, such as diffusion, osmosis and active transport.
Mr Exham IGCSE - Movement In And Out Of Cellsmrexham
This document is a PowerPoint presentation on the processes of diffusion, osmosis, and active transport that allow substances to move in and out of cells. It defines each process and explains how surface area, temperature, and concentration gradients affect their rates. It also describes a simple experiment demonstrating diffusion using a semipermeable membrane and solutions with different sugar concentrations.
The kidneys remove waste from the blood in the form of urea and regulate water and electrolyte balance. Each nephron acts as the functional unit of the kidney, filtering blood in the cortex and reabsorbing useful substances along the tubule in the medulla. Urine is stored in the bladder and released through the urethra. Dialysis can temporarily perform the functions of damaged kidneys by filtering blood through a semipermeable membrane. A kidney transplant is the best long term treatment but requires immunosuppressant drugs to prevent rejection by the recipient's immune system.
1. The document discusses the process of cellular respiration which releases energy from food in living cells. It occurs in three stages: breathing, internal respiration in the blood, and cellular respiration in cells.
2. Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to fully break down glucose, generating more ATP. Anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen, producing less ATP. It allows for short term energy needs like intense muscle activity.
3. The lungs take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide through breathing. Gases are exchanged between the alveoli and blood capillaries by diffusion down a concentration gradient.
This document provides an overview of anatomy and physiology. It defines anatomy as the study of the structure of the human body and physiology as the study of body function. It then describes the levels of structural organization from chemicals and cells to tissues, organs, organ systems, and the whole organism. Key body systems covered include the integumentary system, skeletal system, muscular system, and nervous system. For each system, it identifies main components and functions.
The document discusses the transport system in flowering plants. It describes the two main transport tissues - xylem and phloem. Xylem transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the stems and leaves. It consists of dead cells with thickened lignified walls. Phloem transports sucrose and amino acids from leaves to other plant parts. It consists of sieve tubes with companion cells. The document outlines the processes of water and nutrient absorption by root hairs, and the movement of water up the stem via transpiration pull, root pressure, and capillary action. It also discusses the importance and factors affecting transpiration.
1. Urea is produced in the liver from excess amino acids and is removed from the blood by the kidneys and excreted in urine. Carbon dioxide is produced during respiration and is removed from the body through exhalation in the lungs.
2. Egestion refers to the removal of undigested food from the body, while excretion is the removal of waste products from metabolic processes.
3. During deamination, amino acids are broken down in the liver into components, one of which is converted to urea while the other combines with carbon dioxide to form urea.
AQA Biology B3, Unit 3, full Detailed Revision NotesSaqib Ali
This document provides an overview of various topics related to biology including:
- The process of gas exchange that occurs in the lungs, gut, and plants via diffusion, osmosis, and active transport.
- How the circulatory system transports blood to and from the heart and lungs via arteries, veins, and capillaries to supply oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from tissues.
- The role of microorganisms like yeast and bacteria in food production processes like fermentation and culturing.
- Methods for large scale production of microbes and antibiotics as well as renewable energy sources like biogas.
Circadian rhythms and photoperiodism are important control systems in plants and animals. Circadian rhythms cause daily fluctuations in processes like melatonin production, while photoperiodism causes responses to changing day length like seed germination and flowering. Plants have evolved defenses against pathogens like producing toxic chemicals, and humans have exploited these by using plant-derived medicines. The immune system provides protection through acquired immunity from vaccines and antibodies from monoclonal antibodies. Key body systems like the kidneys and menstrual cycle are regulated by negative feedback of hormones.
This document covers several topics in biology including diet and exercise, pathogens, white blood cells, sense organs, the central nervous system, plant and animal hormones, testing medicines, adaptations, competition, environmental indicators, and genetic concepts like genes, chromosomes, DNA, variation, sexual and asexual reproduction, cloning, and genetic engineering. It provides information on these topics in a structured format with headings and subheadings.
The document discusses the structure and function of DNA and cells. It explains that DNA is found in the nucleus and contains the genetic code. DNA is made up of a double helix structure held together by complementary base pairs that always pair up in the same way. The order of these base pairs forms the genetic code that cells use to make proteins.
The document provides information on the structure of atoms, ionic and covalent bonding, the periodic table, properties of metals and non-metals, and chemical reactions. It discusses how atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons, and how electrons are arranged in shells. It also explains how ionic bonding occurs through transfer of electrons between metals and non-metals, while covalent bonding involves sharing of electrons between non-metals.
Here are the key points about homeostasis:
- Homeostasis refers to maintaining stable internal conditions in the body despite external changes.
- Conditions like temperature, water level, blood sugar, pH, and carbon dioxide levels are maintained within narrow ranges.
- Hormones help regulate these conditions and bring them back to normal levels when needed. Hormones are released from glands and travel through the bloodstream to target organs.
- For example, insulin and glucagon work together to maintain normal blood sugar levels. When blood sugar is too high, the pancreas releases insulin to lower it. When blood sugar is too low, the pancreas releases glucagon to raise it.
- The body also maintains a
This document summarizes information from a biology unit on transport in plants and animals. It discusses several key topics:
- Diffusion and osmosis as mechanisms of transport across cell membranes.
- The human circulatory system, including the structure and function of the heart and blood vessels.
- Homeostasis and how the kidneys and hormones help regulate water balance, temperature, blood sugar, etc.
- Global population growth and its effects on pollution of water, air, and land.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in chemistry including:
1) The structure of atoms including protons, neutrons, and electrons. It also discusses isotopes and electron configuration.
2) The periodic table is introduced including periodic trends in properties and how elements are arranged in groups and periods. Metals, nonmetals, and chemical properties are also covered.
3) Bonding including ionic bonding between metals and nonmetals and covalent bonding between nonmetals is explained through examples like sodium chloride and water. Dot and cross diagrams are used to represent covalent bonds.
4) Compounds and chemical equations are discussed including balancing equations and calculating relative formula mass. Giant ionic structures
Radiation can cause damage to cells and DNA which may lead to cancer or genetic mutations. The main dangers of ionising radiation are killing healthy cells, stimulating cancer growth, and causing mutations to DNA that can be passed down generations. Radiation exposure is measured in dosage, and dosimeters are used to monitor the dose received by individuals. Protective measures include increasing distance from sources of radiation, limiting exposure time, and using shielding such as lead to absorb radiation.
1) The document covers various topics in physics including distance-time graphs, velocity, acceleration, weight, forces, work, energy, electricity, atomic structure, radiation, and the universe.
2) Key concepts explained include the relationship between force, mass, and acceleration, calculating work and power, types of radiation and their properties, and the life cycle of stars ending in red giants, supernovae, neutron stars or black holes.
3) Safety issues around electricity, radiation, and nuclear processes are addressed.
The document provides information on various topics related to biology. It defines key organelles in plant and animal cells as well as bacteria. It also discusses DNA structure and discovery, genetic engineering, mitosis and meiosis, cloning, stem cells, protein manufacture, mutations, enzymes, and aerobic respiration. The document contains definitions, processes, examples, advantages and disadvantages related to these topics.
The document discusses the history and modern understanding of the periodic table. It covers how elements are arranged based on proton number and how this explains trends in properties within groups. Specific groups like alkali metals, halogens, and transition metals are examined in terms of their structures, properties, and reactions. Common acid-base reactions and quantitative chemical calculations are also summarized.
The document discusses topics related to chemical reactions and the periodic table. It provides information on:
- Mendeleev's creation of the periodic table and how he arranged elements based on their properties.
- The structure of atoms consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons located in electron shells around the nucleus.
- The modern periodic table including atomic number and mass number.
- Ionic bonding forming between metals and non-metals through the transfer of electrons. Ionic compounds have high melting/boiling points and conduct electricity when molten or dissolved.
- Covalent bonding forming when atoms share electrons in covalent molecules. Simple covalent substances have low melting/boiling points while giant
The document provides an overview of topics related to physics including infrared radiation, kinetic theory, energy transfer through heating, heating and insulating buildings, energy transfers and efficiency, transferring electrical energy, generating electricity, the national grid, waves, sound, and reflection. It includes definitions, explanations, diagrams, and example exam questions for each topic.
The document discusses atomic structure, ionic and covalent bonding, limestone and its uses in construction, extracting metals, crude oil and its fractional distillation, polymers, emulsions, and saturated and unsaturated fats. It explains that atoms contain protons, neutrons and electrons, and how ionic and covalent bonding occurs. It also describes how limestone is used to make cement, mortar and concrete, and the limestone cycle.
This document contains summary notes on chemistry topics for a GCSE science course. It covers the fundamental ideas in chemistry including atoms, the periodic table, and chemical reactions. It also discusses specific topics like limestone and building materials, metals and their uses, crude oil and fuels, and plant oils. For each topic, it provides an overview and defines key terms and concepts.
The document discusses the history and development of the periodic table. It describes early periodic tables from the 1800s with fewer than 40 known elements arranged based on atomic mass. John Newlands proposed the law of octaves but it only worked for the first few elements. Dmitri Mendeleev arranged elements in a periodic way with gaps for undiscovered elements and was able to predict properties. The modern periodic table arranges elements by atomic number and groups them based on electron configuration in the outer shell leading to similar properties within groups. It also discusses trends in reactivity down groups and across periods.
This document provides revision notes on biology topics related to living and growing. It covers: [1] the basic components of cells and their functions; [2] DNA structure and replication; [3] enzymes and diffusion; [4] the cardiovascular system including blood, blood vessels, and the heart; [5] cell division; [6] human growth and development; and [7] plant growth and responses to stimuli like light and gravity. The notes define key terms and concepts in a concise yet detailed manner.
The document discusses several topics related to chemistry and materials science:
1) It describes the extraction and purification of copper, including heating copper oxide with carbon to extract copper and purifying it via electrolysis.
2) It explains that an alloy is a mixture of two elements where one is a metal, and provides examples of common alloys like brass and their uses.
3) It discusses the structure of the Earth and its main layers from the crust to the inner core.
The document summarizes several key functions and processes of the digestive system:
1) The mouth, esophagus, and stomach are involved in mechanical and chemical digestion of food. 2) The small intestine absorbs digested molecules into the bloodstream through villi. 3) The liver and pancreas produce enzymes like lipase, amylase, and protease to aid digestion.
1. The passage discusses the transportation systems in multi-cellular organisms and plants.
2. In humans and other animals, the circulatory system transports food, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and waste through the bloodstream, with the heart pumping blood through arteries, capillaries and veins.
3. In plants, the xylem transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves, while the phloem transports sugars and other products of photosynthesis to other plant parts. Transpiration helps pull water up the xylem through evaporation from the leaves.
This document provides information on various biology topics including:
- Diffusion and osmosis, the movement of substances through membranes. Active transport requires energy.
- Exchange surfaces are effective with large surface area, thinness, good blood supply and ventilation like in alveoli and villi.
- During breathing, the ribcage and diaphragm work to decrease thoracic pressure and draw air into the lungs. Artificial aids can help breathing.
- In plants, carbon dioxide enters leaves and water and minerals are absorbed by roots, transported by xylem and phloem.
- The heart has four chambers and pumps blood through two circulation systems. Blood flows through arteries, veins
Important Helpful Biology revision notes--Must Seeanicholls1234
The document summarizes key information about cells, including:
- Animal and plant cells contain common structures like the nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell membrane. Plant cells also contain a cell wall and chloroplasts.
- Cells may specialize to carry out specific functions. Substances pass into and out of cells through diffusion or osmosis.
- Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide, water, and light energy to produce glucose and oxygen in plant cells containing chloroplasts. Factors like light intensity and temperature can limit photosynthesis.
- Enzymes act as catalysts for important processes like respiration and digestion. They work best within certain temperature and pH ranges.
1. Small organisms rely on diffusion for transport as their large surface area to volume ratio allows gases and nutrients to reach cells via diffusion. Larger multicellular organisms have developed transport systems like circulatory systems using blood and vessels due to their smaller surface area to volume ratio making diffusion insufficient.
2. Plants have vascular bundles containing xylem and phloem for transport. Xylem transports water and minerals upwards from roots while phloem transports carbohydrates made in leaves to other plant parts.
3. The human circulatory system uses blood, heart, arteries, veins and capillaries to transport substances between lungs, tissues and organs. Blood contains red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
The respiratory system exchanges gases through breathing, warming and filtering air in the upper respiratory tract, and gas exchange in the alveoli. The urinary system removes waste from the blood through the kidneys and releases urine. The digestive system breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste through a series of organs like the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines and liver.
The respiratory system facilitates gas exchange between the body and environment. It involves the intake of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide through specialized organs and surfaces. Large multicellular animals developed respiratory surfaces like gills and lungs that increase surface area for gas exchange. The human respiratory system includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli which allow for diffusion of oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out of the blood for transport to the lungs.
The respiratory system facilitates gas exchange between the body and environment. It involves the intake of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide. Various animal groups have evolved different respiratory surfaces and structures to efficiently carry out this gas exchange, such as lungs, gills, and tracheal systems. In humans, air enters through the nose and mouth and moves through the trachea and bronchi to the lungs, where oxygen diffuses into blood in the alveoli and carbon dioxide diffuses out.
The respiratory system facilitates gas exchange between the body and environment. It involves the intake of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide through specialized organs and surfaces. Large multicellular animals developed respiratory surfaces like gills and lungs that increase surface area for gas exchange. The human respiratory system includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli which allow for diffusion of gases between inhaled air and blood in the lungs.
The respiratory system facilitates gas exchange between the body and environment. It involves the intake of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide. Large animals developed respiratory surfaces like lungs and gills to efficiently exchange gases through diffusion. The human respiratory system includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli which deliver air to the lungs for gas exchange via diffusion between alveoli and capillaries before exhalation. Diseases can impact the respiratory system by affecting airway condition or gas exchange.
Students will able to clear their concepts easily. pictures are added from different places to enhance the learning procedure. based on ncert mainly. will help teachers too to use it as an teaching aid in classrooms. it will surely make learning easy and helpful.
Sharks are able to quickly find injured prey through diffusion. Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration down a concentration gradient. Injured animals release chemicals into the water that sharks can detect with their highly sensitive smell. These chemicals diffuse through the water, creating a scent trail that sharks follow to find weak or injured animals.
Transportation of materials in plants and animalsAashay Dosi
A perfect informative presentation describing the wonders of human body and basics of circulation in platns as weel as in animals with beautiful pictures and required information.
The document discusses cellular respiration and the human respiratory system. It describes how terrestrial organisms have an advantage over aquatic ones in obtaining oxygen from the air. It explains that in humans, air is brought into the lungs through the nostrils and trachea, and then passes through increasingly smaller bronchioles and alveoli, where gas exchange occurs. Oxygen binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells and is transported throughout the body, while carbon dioxide is transported back to the lungs and exhaled. The process of aerobic cellular respiration uses oxygen to fully break down glucose, producing much more energy than anaerobic respiration which occurs without oxygen.
Breathing involves inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide through respiratory organs like the nose, mouth, and lungs. It is a voluntary physical process. Cellular respiration is the involuntary chemical process where glucose and oxygen are broken down in cells to produce energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in the mitochondria of cells. Both processes are essential - breathing supplies oxygen for cellular respiration to produce energy for cellular functions.
Oxygen enters through the nose and nasal/oral cavity, then travels down the pharynx, between the epiglottis and into the larynx/voice box. It then goes through the trachea/windpipe into the bronchi and bronchioles until reaching the alveoli in the lungs where gas exchange occurs - oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the bloodstream and into the alveoli. The carbon dioxide then travels back through the bronchioles and bronchi, up the trachea/windpipe, through the larynx and pharynx, and out through the nose and mouth.
1) Cells need oxygen for cellular respiration and must remove carbon dioxide as it is a waste product.
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3. Diffusion is the movement of a fluid across a concentration gradient
from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
Osmosis is the movement of water across a partially permeable membrane
from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
4.
In active transport, energy is needed.
The
energy comes from cellular respiration
Happens in the cytoplasm and mitochondria
Cell
membrane
cytoplasm
Mitochondria
nucleus
More respiration happening, more active transport can
take place
This is because the fluid can move from low
to high concentrations.
This is called moving against the gradient.
5.
The uptake of mineral ions through the soil.
The ions are found in very dilute solutions.
The solution inside the plant is a lot stronger.
Ions taken in against the gradient.
Glucose is moved out of kidney into your blood.
It goes against the gradient.
Marine birds consume large amounts of salt when
they drink water.
The kidneys cannot get rid of it all.
They have salt glands which use active transport.
6.
When we breathe in,
our ribcage moves up
and out
Our diaphragm flattens
Air is pulled into the
lungs
When we breathe out,
our ribcage moves down
and in
Our diaphragm inflates
Air is forced out of the
lungs
DIAP
H
RAG
M
7.
Lungs are made up of clusters of alveoli
tiny air sacs with large surface areas
Have a rich blood supply
maintains a concentration gradient in
both directions.
Oxygen constantly being removed
from the blood and carbon dioxide
constantly entering the lungs
gas exchange happens at the highest
concentration gradients
o make it rapid and effective.
8.
9.
The food we eat is broken down in the gut.
It forms simple sugars:
Glucose
amino
acids
fatty acids
glycerol.
These products are of no use in the gut.
Via active transport and diffusion, the
molecules from food enter the bloodstream.
food is broken down during the digestion
process.
10.
After being broken down, the food molecules are
small enough to pass through the walls of the
small intestine into the blood vessels.
They can move this way because there is a very
high concentration of food molecules in the gut,
and a very low concentration in the blood, so the
process here is diffusion.
They move along a very steep concentration
gradient.
11.
The lining of the small intestine is folded into
thousands of tiny villi.
They increase the uptake of digested food by
diffusion.
the
villi increase the surface area dramatically.
Diffusion is very rapid and efficient in the gut,
because it has a rich blood supply
digested
food molecules are carried away the second
it diffuses.
a steep concentration gradient is constantly maintained.
12.
Fish have protective scales all over their bodies
prevent
water
They have gills
made
of very thin layers of tissue
GILLLLLS!
with a rich blood supply.
Very
them from directly taking in oxygen from the
thin
Less surface area for the gas to diffuse across.
Fish do not need to worry about keeping the gills
moist living in water.
Gills do not work in air
“suffocate” out of water
if not kept moist constantly the gills stick together
and there isn’t enough surface area for the fish to get
enough oxygen to survive.
13.
All plants require carbon dioxide and water for
photosynthesis.
The carbon dioxide is obtained via diffusion
through the leaves.
The flattened shape of the leaves:
increases
the surface area for diffusion to happen.
Ensures the photosynthesising cells are close to an
edge.
A problem is that water is always being lost by
evaporation.
allowing
vapour.
carbon dioxide in will also lose water
14.
The plant does not need carbon dioxide all the time
At night there is no sunlight
They are adapted for effective exchange
have stomata (opening holes)
both gas-proof and waterproof.
Roots have been adapted for uptake of water and mineral ions.
can open and close at specific times to allow carbon dioxide in and out.
Have a waxy cuticle covering them
photosynthesis cannot take place.
Water is vital for shaping cells and for photosynthesis.
The roots themselves are thin and have a large surface area.
The root hair cells have also adapted
to increase surface area
increase efficiency of water uptake.
The cell membranes of root hair cells have microvilli
further increase surface area for diffusion and osmosis.
The distance between here and the xylem (transport tissue for the
water) is small.
15. 1
2
3
The loss of water vapour through the surface of
the leaves is called transpiration.
As water is lost through the opening in stomata,
more water is pulled up through the xylem to take
its place.
4
5
6
7
8
9
This constant movement of water around the
plant is known as the transpiration stream.
Anything affecting evaporation on a plant will also
affect transpiration.
Factors which increase evaporation will also
increase transpiration.
16.
Sunny and warm conditions increase rate of
photosynthesis
more
carbon dioxide is needed
Means stomata are opened
means water is lost
these conditions also increase transpiration rate:
Hot
dry
windy.
Adaptation to help with the problem of water loss
is
Waxy
cuticle
plant can wilt
happens when more water is lost than gained
prevent much water loss by minimising the surface area
17.
18.
The blood circulation system we have is made up
of three main components:
blood vessels
the heart
the blood
One transports blood from
the heart to the lungs and
back again.
the other takes blood around the rest of the
body.
With this system, we are constantly receiving
oxygenated blood from the lungs.
19.
There are three main blood vessels in the
system, which have all adapted to carry out
specific functions.
The
arteries carry blood away from the heart to the
organs in the body.
This is usually oxygenated blood, explaining the red
tubes.
Is our pulse
The
veins carry blood towards the heart
usually low in oxygen
deep purple-red in colour.
No pulse in veins
do contain valves which prevent the backflow of blood.
The
capillaries are found in junctions between the
arteries and veins.
These are found in huge networks.
The walls are a single cell thick so diffusion is easy.
20.
Our hearts are made of two pumps, for the
double circulation.
These together beat around seventy times a
minute.
The walls of the heart are made pretty much
entirely from muscle which gets oxygen from the
coronary blood vessels.
Split into four chambers
Ventricle
and Atrium for each circulatory system
21.
The liquid part of our blood is called plasma.
It transports red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets.
Blood plasma is a yellow liquid which transports all
blood cells and other substances around the body.
Carbon dioxide produced in the organs is carried in
plasma back to the lungs.
It is the red blood cells which give blood its red
colour.
Urea, a waste product formed in the liver is carried
in the plasma to the kidneys.
In the kidneys, urea is removed from the blood and
changed into urine.
All substances are transported in plasma.
22.
The function of red blood cells is to pick up oxygen from the
lungs and deliver it to cells and tissues where it is needed.
Their adaptations to improve efficiency at their job include:
being shaped like biconcave discs increases surface area:volume ratio
over which diffusion takes place
packed full of haemoglobin - pigments which can carry oxygen
Have no nucleus, more room for haemoglobin and diffusion! WOO.
A haemoglobin is a large protein molecule folded around four
iron atoms ( THAT LOOKS PRETTY MINT!)
Oxygen + Haemoglobin ---> Oxyhaemoglobin
In an area of high oxygen concentration, haemoglobin can react
with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin, which is bright red in
colour, ergo blood being the colour it is.
23.
Lone haemoglobin after is purple/deep red,
which explains the colour of veins.
Haemoglobin are made from iron
a
diet lacking iron can results in anaemia
makes you pale and have no energy.
This is because your body cannot make enough red
blood cells
you cannot carry enough oxygen around the body for
your needs.
24.
Muscles in our bodies need a lot of energy.
They contain many mitochondria to supply
Muscles also contain glycogen stores
glycogen is a carbohydrate which can turn into glucose.
Our body respires more during exercise so our muscles
contract:
this energy.
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)
when exercising your muscles contract harder and
faster
need
more glucose and oxygen to supply their energy
needs.
More carbon dioxide is obviously produced –
has to be removed to keep muscles working efficiently.
25.
So during exercise…
heart rate increases and arteries dilate –
This increase the blood flow to exercising muscles
breathing rate increases, and you breathe deeper –
You breathe more often
You draw more air into the lungs with each breath,
increases oxygen and glucose supply
increases the rate of carbon dioxide removal
Increases the amount of oxygen being brought into the body
Increases the amount of oxygen picked up by red blood cells
This oxygen is carried to the exercising muscles
Exercise is very beneficial to us when done regularly.
Regular exercise…
increases the size of the heart
Increases the size of the lungs
they develop a bigger blood supply
They develop a more efficient blood supply
26.
When you are doing extremely vigorous exercise over
a long period of time, the muscles need so much
oxygen that even an increase in breathing rate and
heart rate does not supply enough.
Respiration which does not involve oxygen must be
done – anaerobic respiration.
Muscles only switch to anaerobic respiration when
they have been exercising for a long time and
fatigue.
Anaerobic respiration is not as efficient as aerobic
respiration
the glucose molecules are not completely broken down
less energy is released.
Anaerobic respiration:
27.
After finishing a lot of exercise, you are out of
breath for quite some time.
Your body does this to get rid of the waste lactic
acid which can cause problems
The lactic acid has to be broken down into
carbon dioxide and water which requires oxygen
The amount of oxygen required to break down all
of the lactic acid is called the oxygen debt.
Oxygen debt repayment:
28.
Your kidneys are vital in maintaining
homeostasis.
They filter out urea and remove it in urine
because urea is poisonous.
Water balance in the body must be maintained
because too much water or too little water in
cells can destroy them
the
kidneys can remove excess water and release it
from the body in urine.
The kidneys can remove excess salt from the
body in the same way.
The kidneys filter the blood and then reabsorb
everything your body needs.
29.
sugar (glucose), amino acids, mineral salts and urea all move out
of the blood and into the kidneys along a concentration gradient.
The blood cells are too big to pass through the tubules and so are
left behind.
ALL of the sugar is reabsorbed back into the blood by active
transport.
The amount of water and the dissolved mineral ions which are
reabsorbed vary.
It depends on how much of each is needed by the body – this is
selective reabsorption.
Urine contains waste urea along with excess mineral ions and
water not needed by the body.
The quantities vary depending on how much you have taken in
and given out.
30.
The human kidneys are not immune from damage.
when they are damaged and stop functioning, toxins like
urea stop being removed from the body, leading to death.
The dialysis machine relies on a process called dialysis to
clean the blood.
A person’s blood leaves their body and flows into the
machine, through partially permeable membranes.
A dialysis fluid, which contains a certain concentration of
substances ensures diffusion of unwanted substances from
the blood into the fluid.
However, glucose remains in the blood.
31.
The dialysis machine prevents unwanted
substances from building up and restores them to
normal levels.
However they build up again after a few days,
which means regular dialysis must be done.
Some dialysis machines can be fitted in homes
It is essential the patient does not lose vital
substances from the blood like glucose and
important mineral ions.
The fluid contains the normal content of mineral
ions, so that any excess mineral ions are lost by
diffusion, but no more.
There is no urea in the dialysis fluid.
32.
Advantages of these machines:
Constant medical attention
Saves lives
Much more readily available
than transplants
Disadvantages of these machines:
repeated use at 8 hours per day
must follow a strict, healthy diet
after some years, the levels can be
hard to maintain
33.
The other solution to the problem of kidney
failure is a kidney transplant.
A replacement kidney must be healthy and
donated by a donor.
The majority of the time, it doesn’t just function
quickly.
The antigens on the kidney will be different from
their own
The problem with this is that the recipient’s
immune system may reject the new kidney
Means
your body will destroy it.
During a transplant, everything is done to prevent
such a thing, but it is always a risk.
34.
There are certain things that can be done to
minimalize the risk of rejection:
Use
a donor similar to the recipient with the same
blood type.
This means they will share some of the same antigens.
Using
immunosuppressant drugs.
Given to recipients which
suppress their immune system
– for the rest of their lives.
means you are prone to
disease
your body cannot deal well
with any infection once
caught.
35.
Advantages
Can
continue life freely without dialysis.
Saves lives
Can eat what you like without worrying
Disadvantages
A
borrowed kidney will only last about 9 years before
shutting down.
Rejection
Have to take your medicine everyday for the rest of your
life in case it is ever rejected by the immune system.
Waiting
lists for kidney recipients can go on for years.
Finding a suitable donor often proves hard.
36.
37. Yeast is probably the most important microorganisms for
us.
Yeasts are single-celled organisms with a nucleus,
cytoplasm and membrane surrounded by a cell wall.
They reproduce by asexual budding (splitting into two to
form two new yeast cells).
Provided with a lot of oxygen, yeast cells will respire
aerobically.
They break down sugar as an energy source, producing the
waste products carbon dioxide and water.
When there is a lack of oxygen they respire anaerobically,
which produces ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Ethanol is alcohol.
This process of anaerobic respiration
in yeast cells is called fermentation.
38.
Yeast is used to produce bread and alcoholic
drinks.
In bread production, the yeast grows and
respires – producing carbon dioxide which
causes the bread to rise.
The gas bubbles expand when baked due to
the high temperatures, giving the bread its
light, texture.
All yeast cells are killed by the heat in the
cooking process.
39.
We can make beers and wines using yeast.
Making beer relies on the process of malting,
where barley grains are soaked in water to keep
them warm.
Germination begins and enzymes break down the
starch in the grains into a sugary solution.
This solution is extracted and used as an energy
source for the yeast.
The yeast and sugar mixture is fermented to
produce alcohol, when hops are often added to
give the drink its flavour.
The beer is then left to settle, clear and develop
fully its flavour.
40.
Making wines uses the natural sugars found in
grapes for the yeast’s energy source.
The grapes would be pressed for their juice,
which is mixed with yeast and water.
The yeast is then left to respire anaerobically
until all of the sugar is used up.
The wine is later filtered to remove the
yeast, and stored in bottles, where it is left
for some time to mature.
41.
Yoghurt is formed by the bacteria action on the lactose
(milk sugar).
You can make yoghurt by:
adding a culture of the right type of bacteria to warm milk
keeping the mixture warm so the bacteria grow, reproduce and
ferment
as the bacteria break down the lactose, lactic acid is produced
this process is lactic fermentation
the lactic acid causes the milk to clot and solidify to form a
yoghurt
further bacterial action gives the yoghurt its creamy
texture
The same bacteria used to make yoghurt will also keep it
from going
Colourings, flavourings and other additives can be added
to the yoghurt to improve its taste, appearance and
texture.
42.
We need microbes in large quantities for production of drugs, like antibiotics, and
food.
To grow microbes on an industrial scale, large vessels called fermenters are used.
These have been developed to prevent occurrences which stop bacterial growth.
They react to changes, to try and maintain a stable environment
Industrial fermenters usually have:
An oxygen supply so the microorganisms
can respire
A stirrer to keep the microbes in
suspension
this maintains a constant temperature
and makes sure that the oxygen and food
are evenly spread out throughout the
culture
A water-cooled jacket which removes
excess heat produced from the respiration
Measuring devices for pH and temperature
so changes can be made if necessary
43.
A flammable mixture of gases forms when bacteria break down waste
material of dead animals or plants in anaerobic conditions.
The main component is methane, although the contents varies.
The methane content tends to be around 50 to 80 per cent of the gas, the
rest is made of carbon dioxide, water, hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide.
Animal waste, dead animal and plant material and garden waste all
contain carbohydrates which make them good energy sources for biogas
generators.
They tend to work best at around 30°C so are usually in hot countries.
On average, every 10kg of dry dung can produce 3 cubic metres of biogas
which is about 3 hours.
Another advantage of these generators is that the waste, can be used as
a fertiliser.
44.
A type of food based on fungi is called mycoprotein.
It is produced using the fungus Fusarium,
It requires aerobic conditions to grow.
Its mass doubles every 5 hours
this biomass is harvested, purified and dried to leave
mycoprotein.
It is pale yellow in colour and tastes faintly of
mushrooms
grows and reproduces very rapidly based on a cheap
energy supplyin a large fermenter.
a range of colours and flavours can be added to it to
enhance it.
Mycoprotein serves as a high-protein, low-fat meat
substitute.
This means it is good for dieters and vegetarians.
45.
Spontaneous generation is the belief that all living things
come from a non-living thing.
Biogenesis is the idea that living things created other living
things.
Louis Pasteur's broth
Louis broiled broth for 15 min.
He then let it sit for some time in a swan neck flask.
He noticed that some dust had accumulated in the top
part of the flask.
He took a sample from the broth inside the flask.
He noticed that nothing was growing in it.
So he then preceded to shake the broth in the flask in
such a way, that it would touch the dust at the top.
He then took a sample from that and it was highly
bacteria ridden.