This document discusses the history and principles of autorefractors. It explains that autorefractors use infrared light and meridional refractometry to objectively determine a patient's refractive error without needing subjective feedback. Modern autorefractors are more accurate and efficient than older subjective methods due to advances in electronics. They work by projecting an infrared fixation target and using a Badal optometer and fogging technique to relax accommodation and obtain refractive measurements.
Keratometer is an ophthalmic instruments and has a very important role in optometry field specially for IOL power calculation, Contact lens fitting, to rule out corneal pathology and its progression ie Keratoconus, PMCD.
Describes the basic of applanation tonometry, the factors affecting it and also how to perform the ideal tonometry. The slide are borrowed but it gives complete idea of mastering Applanation tonometry.
If the original owner of the slides has an objection i shall take down the ppt with due apologies.
To know Humphrey visual field analyser
To know about various types of perimetry
To identify field defect
To recognize that field defect is due to glaucoma or neurological lesion
To know that field defect is progressive or not
Interpretation of HVFA
Ophthalmic Prisms: Prismatic Effects and DecentrationRabindraAdhikary
Ophthalmic Prisms: Prismatic Effects and Decentration
here we discuss about the ophthalmic prisms, the prismatic effects as caused by the decentration( moving the optical center away from the visual axis)
Keratometer is an ophthalmic instruments and has a very important role in optometry field specially for IOL power calculation, Contact lens fitting, to rule out corneal pathology and its progression ie Keratoconus, PMCD.
Describes the basic of applanation tonometry, the factors affecting it and also how to perform the ideal tonometry. The slide are borrowed but it gives complete idea of mastering Applanation tonometry.
If the original owner of the slides has an objection i shall take down the ppt with due apologies.
To know Humphrey visual field analyser
To know about various types of perimetry
To identify field defect
To recognize that field defect is due to glaucoma or neurological lesion
To know that field defect is progressive or not
Interpretation of HVFA
Ophthalmic Prisms: Prismatic Effects and DecentrationRabindraAdhikary
Ophthalmic Prisms: Prismatic Effects and Decentration
here we discuss about the ophthalmic prisms, the prismatic effects as caused by the decentration( moving the optical center away from the visual axis)
Detailed instumentaion and use of manual Lensometer and just a outline of automated lensometer.
I have used the picture of manual lensometer with out the parts describtion because i have explained orally by showing the picture..
Hope u all like it and may help you in learning better. :)
Slit lamp biomicroscopy and illumination techniquesLoknath Goswami
It is a presentation on slitlamp for beginner, shown the parts and different illumination techniques both for eye and contact lens and it have short history
Detailed instumentaion and use of manual Lensometer and just a outline of automated lensometer.
I have used the picture of manual lensometer with out the parts describtion because i have explained orally by showing the picture..
Hope u all like it and may help you in learning better. :)
Slit lamp biomicroscopy and illumination techniquesLoknath Goswami
It is a presentation on slitlamp for beginner, shown the parts and different illumination techniques both for eye and contact lens and it have short history
Optometers are subjective if the patient judges the clarity of the retinal image or objective when the machine or examiner does it.
Subjective optometers control the focus of the retinal image and are used to determine when a target is conjugate to the retina.
Objective optometers measure the defocus or disconjugacy of the retinal image and the stimulus target.
There are also measures of accommodation that measure characteristics of the crystalline lens such as front surface curvature via the third Purkinje image.
SIMPLE OPTOMETER:
The simple optometer is a plus lens placed in the anterior focal plane or spectacle plane of the eye.
The virtual image of objects placed before the lens can be imaged from infinity to close to the spectacle plane, simply by moving the target from the anterior focal plane of the lens to the lens plane respectively.
The virtual image distance is calculated from the Gaussian equation
1/u + F = 1/v where: u= object distance, v=image distance, F = focal power
One problem with the simple optometer in the measurement of accommodation is that the image increases in size with proximity so that you have both size and blur cues to accommodation.
BADAL OPTOMETER:
Invented by Jules Badal in 1876, who is French scientist
The Badal optometer utilizes a plus lens placed so that its posterior focal plane is coincident with the anterior focal plane of the eye.
This instrument keeps image size constant while varying target distance and stimulus to accommodation.
The optical system is telecentric in both the object and image space, that is, the rays are parallel.
NAGEL OPTOMETER:
The Nagel optometer is based on a similar concept.
Here ,a plus lens whose posterior focal plane is coincident with the nodal point of the eye. It also keeps image size constant with changing object distance.
SUBJECTIVE OPTOMETERS
For Δz = 0, the light emerging from the lens is collimated (i.e. object at infinity)
For Δz > 0, the light emerging from the lens is diverging. The object appears in front of eye, so will be in focus for myopes.
For Δz < 0, the light emerging from the lens is converging. The virtual image is behind the eye, so will be in focus for hyperopes.
STIGMATOSCOPY:
Combine of Simple and Badal lens optometers with various visual stimuli to enhance the sensitivity of subjective measures by improving sensitivity to blur detection.
The stigmascope enhances blur perception with a small point source as the target viewed through the optometer lens.
When the image of the point source is seen clearly and sharply, it is optically conjugate to the fovea.
At the same time, this image may be introduced so that the eye can be fixating some other target which acts as the stimulus to accommodation such as Snellen chart.
Bracketing the measures of positive and negative blur of the stigma allows you to estimate the accommodative response.
SCHEINER’S PUPIL:
Scheiner developed a double pupil that causes images viewed through it to app
This include a brief explanation of the clinical refraction methods in the eye examination procedure. In order to get the full video download the ppt. it includes a lot of important things
Ophthalmoscopy
A clinical examination of the posterior segment by the means of an ophthalmoscope.
It is primarily done to assess the state of fundus and detect the opacities of ocular media.
Ophthalmoscope
An instrument that allows the ophthalmologist to look inside a person’s eye and see the details of the living retina
The Eyesi® Indirect training simulator mimics an indirect ophthalmoscope down to the last detail. It utilises a head-mounted stereo display (on an ophthalmoscope headband), two diagnostic lenses and a patient model head.
The Eyesi® Indirect has access to a comprehensive database of clinically relevant pathologies. Via augmented reality, combining real and virtual images, trainees are able to see a 3D virtual patient, their own hand and an image of the patient’s retina in the lens.
The Eyesi Indirect Opthalmoscope ROP Simulator (Eyesi Indirect ROP) is a
mixed reality simulator for training of retinal examinations on preterm infants using a binocular indirect ophthalmoscope. The simulator comes with a didactically structured curriculum designed for teaching device handling and classification of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP).
Direct ophthalmoscopy is an important part of every routine eye examination. Simulator-based training with theEyesi® Direct allows for standardisation of the learning experience. It offers students the opportunity to perform examinations independently, 24/7, with exposure to important pathologies, ensuring the same clinical experience for every student. Pre-installed courseware, starting with basic skills, leads trainees step-by-step to proficiency, and the VRmNet platform offers online features
For generations, the Synoptophore has been THE standard instrument of choice for the busy Orthoptic clinic. It is ideal for the assessment and treatment of ocular motility disorders by reliably performing the most comprehensive binocular vision assessment available today.
Retinoscope is an objective refraction instrument used to
determine the spherocylindrical refractive error, as well as
observe optical aberrations, irregularities, and opacities.
The technique is called Retinoscopy/Skiascopy/Shadow Test
Optometry instruments is a presentation to describe instrument in a beautiful way. use this tool to improve your knowledge. stay blessed. Regards Muhammad Akbar Rashid Qadri.
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,ABORTION WOMEN’S CLINIC +27730423979 IN women clinic we believe that every woman should be able to make choices in her pregnancy. Our job is to provide compassionate care, safety,affordable and confidential services. That’s why we have won the trust from all generations of women all over the world. we use non surgical method(Abortion pills) to terminate…Dr.LISA +27730423979women Clinic is committed to providing the highest quality of obstetrical and gynecological care to women of all ages. Our dedicated staff aim to treat each patient and her health concerns with compassion and respect.Our dedicated group ABORTION WOMEN’S CLINIC +27730423979 IN women clinic we believe that every woman should be able to make choices in her pregnancy. Our job is to provide compassionate care, safety,affordable and confidential services. That’s why we have won the trust from all generations of women all over the world. we use non surgical method(Abortion pills) to terminate…Dr.LISA +27730423979women Clinic is committed to providing the highest quality of obstetrical and gynecological care to women of all ages. Our dedicated staff aim to treat each patient and her health concerns with compassion and respect.Our dedicated group of receptionists, nurses, and physicians have worked together as a teamof receptionists, nurses, and physicians have worked together as a team wwww.lisywomensclinic.co.za/
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
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Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
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ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
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- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
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Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
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Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
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Autorefractometer
1. S
AUTOREFRACTOMETER
Moderator - Dr. (Prof) ARVIND L. TENAGI
Presenter - Dr. Devanshu Arora
Wednesday, May 13th, 2015 1
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
2. INTRODUCTION
S Refractometry is the estimation of refractive error
with a machine, called refractometer or optometer.
S Automated Refractometers (AutoRefractors) are
designed to objectively determine the refractive error
& are of various types depending upon the
underlying principle they are based on.
Wednesday, May 13th, 2015 2
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
3. S Over the last 200 years or so attempts have been
made to automate the process of refraction, but with
little success
S Until recently, when successful autorefractors were
developed, over the last 30 years, which could
objectively determine a patient’s refractive status
with an acceptable level of reliability.
S With the advent of technology these equipments
have become more sophisticated & increasingly
precise. Indeed, there are publications to support the
notion that modern autorefractors are more accurate
and repeatable than retinoscopy
Wednesday, May 13th, 2015 3
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
4. Why the need?
S The reason for its increasing popularity is primarily
that automated refraction devices offer speed,
reasonable accuracy and repeatability.
S With the increasing load of patients in any
ophthalmology practice, the practitioners are faced
with the challenge of completing all tasks (including
history, thorough examination & refraction being an
important part of it) within a fixed time frame. An
autorefractor will, therefore, increase the speed and
efficiency of the refraction process.
Wednesday, May 13th, 2015 4
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
5. S The use of these instruments in delivering
repeatable, unbiased data is invaluable in academic
& research studies wherever refractive and
keratometric parameters need to be recorded.
S However, we should not forget that retinoscopy
provides certain information not provided by
conventional autorefractors. For example, it informs
the practitioner about media opacities
Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
5
6. HISTORY & OPTICAL
PRINCIPLES
S The present day autorefractors are based on the
principles used in earlier attempts for automation of
refraction.
S It is therefore important to understand the underlying
principles on which they function as well as the
difficulties which prevented the successful
automation of refraction in the past.
Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
6
7. Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
7
The Scheiner Principle
S Scheiner discovered in 1619 that the
point at which an eye was focused could
be precisely determined by placing double
pinhole apertures before the pupil.
S Parallel rays of light from a distant object are
reduced to two small bundles of light by the
Scheiner disc.
S These form a single focus on the retina if the
eye is emmetropic; but if there is any
refractive error two spots fall on the retina
9. S By adjusting the position of the object (performed
optically by the autorefractor) until one focus of light
is seen by the patient, the far point of the patient’s
eye and the refractive error can be determined.
Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
9
10. Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
10
Optometer Principle
S The term ‘optometer’ was first used in 1759 by
Porterfield who described an instrument for
‘measuring the limits of distinct vision, and
determining with great exactness the strength and
weakness of sight’.
S It involved a convex lens placed in front of the eye at
its focal length from the eye (or the spectacle plane)
and a movable target is viewed through the lens.
12. Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
12
S Light from the target on the far side of the lens
enters the eye with vergence of different amounts,
depending on the position of the target.
S If the target lies at the focal point of the lens, light
from the target will be parallel at the spectacle plane,
and focused on the retina of the Emmetropic eye.
S Light from the target when it is within the focal length
of the lens will be divergent in the spectacle plane
while light from a target outside the focal length of
the lens will be convergent.
13. S The vergence of the light in the focal plane of the
lens is linearly related to the displacement of the
target from the focal point of the lens.
S A scale can thus be formed which would show the
number of diopters of correction according to the
position of the target.
Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
13
14. Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
14
Meridional Refractometry
S In the presence of astigmatism, the axes of the
principal meridians must be found and refraction in
both measured.
S However, the need to identify the principal meridians
of astigmatism stood in the way of truly automated
refraction until the principle of meridional
refractometry was discovered in the 1960s.
S Which stated that if the spherical refraction is
measured in at least three arbitrary meridians, the
position of the principal axes and their refractive
powers can be calculated by mathematical
calculation.
15. Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
15
S The mathematical calculation is based on what is
called the sine-squared function.
S The three power measurements at the three
respective meridians provide three points on the
sine-squared function graph. From this, the rest of
the curve can be extrapolated in order to calculate
the maximum and minimum power values, i.e. the
principal focal planes.
16. EARLY OPTOMETERS
S The earliest instruments were the subjective
optometers in which the patient had to adjust the
instrument to achieve the best subjective alignment
or focus of the target.
S However they proved unsatisfactory because of 3
main limitations:-
1. Alignment Problems
2. Irregular Astigmatism
3. Instrument Accommodation
Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
16
17. Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
17
S Alignment Problems: As per the requirements of
Scheiner’s Principle, both pinhole apertures must fit
in within the patient’s pupil. Achieving and
maintaining correct alignment of the instrument
required great skill & patience from the examiner &
good cooperation from the patient.
S Irregular Astigmatism: Instruments using the
Scheiner principle measure only the refraction of two
small portions of the pupillary aperture
corresponding to the apertures on the Scheiner’s
disc. In a patient with irregular astigmatism, the best
refraction over the whole pupil may be different in
contrast to the two small pinhole areas of the pupil.
18. Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
18
S Instrument Accommodation:- Inappropriate
accommodation often occurs when a target is
viewed which is known to be within an instrument.
This is called instrument accommodation and leads
to errors in the readings obtained.
S Later, the early objective optometers were
developed, but these required the examiner to focus
or align the image of a target on the patient's retina
& failed to come in main stream use because of
alignment difficulties & instrument accommodation.
19. MODERN
REFRACTOMETERS
S With the rapid development in electronics and
microcomputers, a number of innovative methods &
instruments for automated clinical refraction have
appeared since 1960.
S In recent years, the automatic infrared optometers
have come to the fore. These are truly objective
instruments as the instrument itself senses the end
point of refraction.
Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
19
20. BASIC DESIGN OF AN
AUTOREFRACTOR
S Autorefractors basically comprise of an infrared
source, a fixation target and a Badal optometer.
S An infrared light source (around 800-900nm) is used
primarily because it is invisible & helps overcome
instrument accommodation to a certain extent.
Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
20
21. S However, at this wavelength, light is reflected back
from the deeper layers of the retina, and this
together with chromatic aberration of the eye, the
refraction of the eye to infrared differs significantly
from its refraction to visible light.
S This difference is of the order of 0.75D – 1.50D more
hypermetropic to infrared. Manufacturers therefore
calibrate the instruments empirically to correlate with
subjective clinical results.
Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
21
22. Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
22
FIXATION TARGET:-
S A variety of targets have been
used for fixation ranging from
animations to pictures with
peripheral blur to further relax
accommodation.
S Accommodation is most relaxed
when the patient identifies the
scene as one typically seen at a
distance which can be achieved
by using visual fixation targets
composed of photographs or
animations of outdoor scenes.
24. Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
24
S All autorefractors now
use the fogging
technique to relax
accommodation prior to
objective refraction.
S This is the reason why
patients state that the
target is blurred prior to
measurements being
taken – this is the effect
of the fogging lens
26. Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
26
OPTOMETER:-
S Virtually all autorefractors have a Badal optometer
within the measuring head.
S The Badal lens system has main advantage that,
there is a linear relationship between the distance of
the Badal lens to the eye and the ocular refraction
within the meridian being measured.
28. TYPES OF
AUTOREFRACTORS
S Fundamentally, there are three types of
autorefractors which derive objective refraction by:
• Image quality analysis
• Scheiner double pin-hole refraction
• Retinoscopy
Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
28
29. Wednesday, May 13th, 2015
Department of Ophthalmology, JNMC,
Belagavi
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Image Quality Analysis
S This method is not used very much in modern-day
autorefractors. It was originally used in the Dioptron
autorefractor developed in the 1970s.
S Here, the optimal position of the optometer lens was
determined by the output signal of the light sensor.
The light sensor matches the intensity profile of the
incoming light from the eye, to the light intensity
pattern from the rotating slit drum.
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How The Image Analyser Determines The Optimal
Position Of The Optometer Lens?
A low intensity profile tells
the autorefractor that the
optometer lens is not in
the correct position to
correct the power. When
the intensity profile
reaches a peak, the
optometer reading is
taken to signify the power
of the meridian being
measured.
31. Autorefractors based on the
Scheiner Principle
S Most of the latest autorefractors used in practice
today use the Scheiner principle.
S Implementation of this technology in autorefractors is
somewhat different to that used by Scheiner in his
double pin-hole experiment.
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S In general, two LEDs (light emitting diodes) are
imaged to the pupillary plane. These effectively act
as a modified Scheiner pinhole by virtue of the
narrow beams of light produced by the small
aperture pinhole located at the focal point of the
objective lens.
S Ocular refraction leads to doubling of the LEDs if
refractive error is present. After refraction, the retinal
image of the LEDs reflects from the retina back out
of the eye. However, light emanating from the eye is
again reflected by a semi silvered mirror to a dual
photodetector.
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S As the LED system is moved back and forth, the
separation of the two images varies on the
photodetector.
S When the retinal image is single, a single LED
image is centred over both photodetectors. The LED
position corresponds to the refractive error in that
meridian.
S In the case of astigmatism, four LEDs are used and
the power perpendicular to the meridian under test is
measured.
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S It is apparent that alignment of the photodetectors in
such a system is important.
S Basically, it is important that both the patient fixation
and instrument axes are coaxial. If this condition is
not met, then effectively the objective refraction is
conducted from an off-axis point – and this leads to
error. Manufacturers have attempted to reduce these
errors with auto-alignment systems.
S Practitioners who ‘over-ride’ this function, by
continually holding down the joystick button, may
effectively increase the error of measurement due to
the possibility of misalignment.
36. Autorefractors based on
Retinoscopy Principle
S Some autorefractors (eg. Welch Allen Suresight and
Power Refractor II) use infra-red videorefraction
S A grating, or slit, is produced by a rotating drum.
S Similar principles to retinoscopy are used where the
speed of the reflex is used as an indicator of the
patient’s refraction.
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S It is also referred to as ‘The Knife Edge Principle’.
S Knife-edge refractors use the concept of optical
reciprocity such that radiation from the fundus reflex
is returned to the primary source.
S The slit or ‘knife’ is used to determine the refractive
power of the eye
S The speed and direction of the movement of the
reflex is detected by photodetectors and computed
to derive the meridional power
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S The time difference from the slit reaching each of the
detectors allows the autorefractor to detect the
meridian under investigation.
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S The vertical slit calculates the refraction of the
vertical meridian. The system detects that the
vertical meridian is measured by the way each
detector senses the slit as it passes over the pupil.
S The oblique slit will like wise initiate a different time
dependent response from the detectors, and thus
derive the power within the oblique meridian.
41. Autorefractors Currently in Use
S Autorefractors are most commonly used to provide
the starting point for refraction to obtain an objective
result before performing subjective refraction.
S Most commercially available Autorefractors available
today come with an inbuilt Automated Keratometer &
are known as Auto Kerato-Refractometer.
S Recently new equipments with addition corneal
topgrahers have been developed in which Corneal
Topography can also be performed.
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42. Portable Autorefractors
S Since the autorefractor is
stationary, examining light
refraction in children has
remained somewhat challenging.
To address the problem, scientists
developed a portable autorefractor
that is particularly helpful in
examining children as they can
easily adjust themselves
according to different positions of
the patient.
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S The portable autorefractor holds great promise in the
future for better eye health, because it can also allow
optometrists to conduct preliminary eye
examinations for those who cannot get to a doctor’s
office.
S It is also ideal for vision screenings in community
groups or health fairs.
S With the advent of handheld autorefractors, it can be
used on patients with certain disabilities, such as
those who cannot hold their head up straight. Tech-
nicians or doctors can position themselves to make
them work on bedridden patients.
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Intraoperative Refraction
S A new intraoperative approach to IOL power
calculation has been tried which is based solely on
optical refractometry, independent of anatomical and
biometric measurements used in traditional
techniques such as axial length and keratometry.
S Intraoperative aphakic refraction is performed after
cataract extraction using a portable autorefractor &
IOL power calculated using specific formulas for the
same.
S There are certain publications on this technique but
more studies are required before it can become
main stream.
46. Recent Advances in
Automated Refraction
S Automated Refraction Systems have been
developed in which an autorefractor is connected
with other automated instruments like a phoropter &
an electronic chart and results obtained from the
autorefractor reading are automatically transmitted
to phoropter and various lenses tried, so that both
objective & subjective refraction are performed in an
automated way.
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Automated Refraction System
The standard components of an automated refraction system:
S An Autorefractor
S An electronic and motor driven auto-phoropter, used to
present powered lenses in front of the patient's eyes
S A hardware or software-driven controller that changes the
lenses in the phoropter for the subjective portion of the
testing.
S An Eye Chart to aid in the determination of visual acuity
during the test
S An autolensmeter that measures the powers of the patient's
current pair of glasses or contact lenses.
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Automated Refraction System Video
Disclaimer-
Video incorporated for example purpose only. No commercial
interest intended
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Advantages of automated refraction systems vs. manual
refraction equipment are:
S less manual labour by the practitioner or technician
S more automation of repetitive and iterative tasks in the
refraction
S ability to present former and new values quickly for
validation
S reduced risk of human error
S direct transmission of results to Electronic Medical
Record(EMR) software
S Improved efficiency of practice
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S Recently, a tool has been developed which works by
combining a simple optical attachment with software
on a smartphone which enables assessment of
Refractive Error.
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S Additionally, some variations on the traditional
autorefractor have been developed.
S The aberrometer is an advanced form of
autorefractor that examines light refraction from
multiple sites on the eye.
S Aberrometry measures the way a wavefront of light
passes through the cornea & crystalline lens, which
are the refractive components of the eye. Distortions
that occur as light travels through the eye are called
aberrations, representing specific vision errors.
Wavefront technology in Refraction
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S Several types of visual imperfections, referred to as
lower and higher-order aberrations, exist within the
eye and can affect both visual acuity and the quality
of vision.
S Conventional examination techniques &
autorefractors only measure lower-order aberrations
such as myopia, hypermetropia, and astigmatism.
S However, these do not account for all potential vision
imperfections. Higher-order aberrations can also
have a significant impact on quality of vision and are
often linked to glare and halos that may cause night
vision problems.
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S Wavefront technology, or aberrometry, diagnoses
both lower- and higher-order vision errors
represented by the way the eye refracts or focuses
light.
S Wavefront analysisis not "an upgraded" version of
corneal topography or autorefraction but a visual
equity measuring device that takes all elements of
the optical system into consideration i.e. the tear
film, the anterior corneal surface, the corneal stroma,
the anterior crystalline lens surface, the crystalline
lens substance, the posterior crystalline lens
surface, the vitreous and the retina.
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S Wavefront analysis is approximately 25-50 times
more accurate than the autorefractometer
S Now that higher-order aberrations can be accurately
defined by wavefront technology and corrected by
new kinds of spectacles, contact lenses & refractive
surgery, they have become more important factors in
eye exams.
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Basic functioning of Hartmann-Shack Aberrometer
57. Prescribing directly
from autorefractors
S Although many studies have evaluated the accuracy
and repeatability of autorefractors relative to
subjective refraction, the ability of patients to adapt
and tolerate these prescriptions has not been
addressed.
S Strang-et al conducted an interesting study to
investigate patient tolerance to autorefractor
prescriptions.
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Strang et al Study
S Forty-seven subjects with a mean age of 36.7
(±16.7) and no ocular pathology, were enrolled into
their study. Six autorefractors (Canon RL-10, Hoya
AR-559, Humphrey AR-595, Nidek AR-800, Nikon
NR-5500 and Topcon RM-A7000) were used to
refract the patients in addition to carrying out
subjective refraction. Spectacles were made from
the prescription of one of the six autorefractors
(assigned randomly) and the practitioner.
S Subjects wore each prescription for two weeks. Both
the investigators and the subjects were masked as
to the prescription being worn. After each period,
subjects filled out a questionnaire.
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S The authors’ concluded that prescribing purely from
the autorefractor prescription was unfeasible in
practice.
S Similar studies need to be conducted with modern-
day autorefractors and instruments capable of
automated subjective refraction
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Autorefraction in Irregular eyes
S Corneal shape post refractive surgery is clearly
modified in the majority of procedures.
S Furthermore, specific algorithms are used in lasers
which ablate the cornea to reduce aberrations.
S Most autorefractors (all Scheiner based) perform
refraction through a fixed pupil diameter.
S Therefore, the influence of overall refraction
throughout the pupillary plane will not be addressed.
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S In eyes with a normal corneal shape, the results will
not be affected but in pathological eyes such as post
graft, keratoconus and post refractive surgery, the
departure of corneal shape from normality may
induce significant errors compared to subjective
refraction.
63. Conclusion
S Autorefractors are a valuable tool in determining a
starting point for refraction.
S Modern technology has resulted in improvements in
design, size, speed and accuracy.
S There are primarily two principles utilised in current
autorefractors – the Scheiner principle and the
Retinoscopic principle.
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S Improvements in target design ( like auto-fogging
distance targets) attempt to relax accommodation in
patients. The results of autorefraction post refractive
surgery, and in eyes with corneal distortion, should
always be viewed with suspicion.
S Aberrometers may help to provide a better starting
point for refraction in these instances
S Unfortunately, the cost of these systems is
significantly greater than the cost of autorefractors
and is therefore not likely to replace automated
refraction at the present time.
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Thank You For Your Attention
66. REFERENCES
S Clinical Optics by Andrew R. Elkington 3rd Edition
S Ophthalmology 4th edition- Yanoff & Duker
S Automated refraction Design and applications,
Optometry Today
S Theory & Practice of Refraction by AK Khurana 3rd
Edition
S Internet
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Editor's Notes
Since most present day autorefractors have an inbulit automatic keratometer as well.
The parallel rays of light entering the eye from a distant object are normally focused on a point on the retina in an emmetropic patient.
They are limited to 2 small bundles when double pinhole apertures or a scheiner’s disc is placed in front of the pupil
In a myopic eye, the 2 ray bundles cross each other before reaching the retina, and 2 small spots of light are seen.
In a hypermetropic eye, the ray bundles are intercepted by the retina before they meet & thus again 2 small spots of light are seen.
Far point is the point farthest from the eye at which an object is accurately focused on the retina when the accommodation is completely relaxed
Light from the target when it is within the focal length of the lens will be divergent in the spectacle plane while light from a target outside the focal length of the lens will be convergent.
Certain autorefractors use an open view to allow patients an unrestricted binocular view of a distance target
Infrared light is collimated & passes through rectangular masks present in a rotating drum. The light passes through a beam splitter to the optometer system & is projected on the retina & a slit image is formed. The polarising beam splitter effectively removes reflected light from the cornea whereas the slit image from the retina passes through the polarised beam splitter and falls on the light sensor. The optometer lens system moves laterally to find the optimal focus of the slit on the retina. Optimal focus is achieved when a peak signal is received from the light sensor.
Sub-optimal position position of optometer lens- results in low detector output
this is performed for three meridians & results obtained
Slide 8
Knife edge test for myopic eye. The motion of the reflex across the detector provides information on the nature of the refractive error. The speed of the reflex describes the magnitude of refraction.
Knife edge test for an emmetropic eye. The reflex on the detector moves over most of the surface
NETRA
A thin laser beam enters the eye and is focused on the retina. As the emerging rays reflect off the macula and refracts out of the eye through each part of the optical media, they are focused onto n lens array & are captured by a CCD-camera which quantifies their deviation, and creates the wavefront pattern from the recorded deviation.