This document summarizes Aristotle's theory of the state according to Aristotle. It discusses that Aristotle viewed the state as a natural community that exists to allow humans to fulfill their needs and achieve the good life. It developed naturally from families forming villages and then multiple villages forming a state. Aristotle believed that humans are political animals by nature and cannot be self-sufficient without membership in a state. The state has priority over individuals and families, but individuals still maintain their separate identities within the organic whole of the state.
Political thought- Aristotle Views on SlaverySanket Gogoi
Aristotle justifies slavery on three grounds: nature, usefulness, and expediency. He argues that nature provides different people with different qualities and abilities, with the superior meant to rule over the inferior. Aristotle asserts that slavery benefits both masters and slaves, as it allows masters leisure to focus on public affairs while slaves can elevate themselves by sharing their masters' virtues. He claims slavery was essential to the Greek economy and social order at the time.
Aristotle studied nearly 158 constitutions and developed a scientific theory of revolution. According to Aristotle, revolution can be a major or minor change in a constitution or government, or a change in ruling power without constitutional change. Revolutions have general causes like psychological motives for profit and honor, and special reasons including social, economic, and external factors. Aristotle analyzed how revolutions occur differently in democratic, oligarchical, aristocratic, and monarchical systems. He proposed methods to resist revolution such as resolving discrimination, reducing injustice, democratic attitudes, education, rule of law, supportive constitutions, decent government-people relations, decentralization of power, and patriotism.
The document discusses several key aspects of Plato's political philosophy and ideal state as presented in works like The Republic. It explains that Plato's state is ruled by "philosopher kings" who are free from materialism and illusions. It has a system of functional specialization and strict state-controlled education. Plato believed justice could be achieved through communism of property and family, with children considered national property. His ideal state is criticized for being utopian, promoting dictatorship, and restricting individual liberty.
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher born in 384 BCE in Stagira, Greece. He studied at Plato's Academy in Athens for 20 years before founding his own school, the Lyceum, in 335 BCE. Aristotle wrote on many topics and made significant contributions to logic, metaphysics, physics, biology, zoology, ethics, and politics. In his work Politics, Aristotle defines humans as political animals and analyzes the ideal structure of the state.
Plato's theory of ideal state included compulsory education managed by the state, divided into elementary and higher education with three phases. The first phase focused on gymnastics, music, and mathematics from ages 0-18. The second phase from ages 21-35 included dialectics, geography, astronomy and other subjects. The third phase after age 35 involved further studies abroad. Plato also proposed a theory of communism with functional specialization, non-interference between classes, and social harmony. His theory of justice aimed to differentiate classes based on aptitude tests.
Plato was a Greek philosopher who lived from 427-347 BC. He was a student of Socrates and founded the Academy, one of the first institutions of higher learning. His most famous work is The Republic. In it, he discusses his ideal state and conception of justice. Plato believes the ideal state functions like an extended family, with different classes performing specialized roles for the good of the whole. Individual justice is achieved through self-control and rational thought dominating over desires. The just state and just individual both have different parts working harmoniously together.
This SlideShare introduces students to political science. It gives the basic understanding of the discipline and how political science can be studied scientifically.
Political thought- Aristotle Views on SlaverySanket Gogoi
Aristotle justifies slavery on three grounds: nature, usefulness, and expediency. He argues that nature provides different people with different qualities and abilities, with the superior meant to rule over the inferior. Aristotle asserts that slavery benefits both masters and slaves, as it allows masters leisure to focus on public affairs while slaves can elevate themselves by sharing their masters' virtues. He claims slavery was essential to the Greek economy and social order at the time.
Aristotle studied nearly 158 constitutions and developed a scientific theory of revolution. According to Aristotle, revolution can be a major or minor change in a constitution or government, or a change in ruling power without constitutional change. Revolutions have general causes like psychological motives for profit and honor, and special reasons including social, economic, and external factors. Aristotle analyzed how revolutions occur differently in democratic, oligarchical, aristocratic, and monarchical systems. He proposed methods to resist revolution such as resolving discrimination, reducing injustice, democratic attitudes, education, rule of law, supportive constitutions, decent government-people relations, decentralization of power, and patriotism.
The document discusses several key aspects of Plato's political philosophy and ideal state as presented in works like The Republic. It explains that Plato's state is ruled by "philosopher kings" who are free from materialism and illusions. It has a system of functional specialization and strict state-controlled education. Plato believed justice could be achieved through communism of property and family, with children considered national property. His ideal state is criticized for being utopian, promoting dictatorship, and restricting individual liberty.
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher born in 384 BCE in Stagira, Greece. He studied at Plato's Academy in Athens for 20 years before founding his own school, the Lyceum, in 335 BCE. Aristotle wrote on many topics and made significant contributions to logic, metaphysics, physics, biology, zoology, ethics, and politics. In his work Politics, Aristotle defines humans as political animals and analyzes the ideal structure of the state.
Plato's theory of ideal state included compulsory education managed by the state, divided into elementary and higher education with three phases. The first phase focused on gymnastics, music, and mathematics from ages 0-18. The second phase from ages 21-35 included dialectics, geography, astronomy and other subjects. The third phase after age 35 involved further studies abroad. Plato also proposed a theory of communism with functional specialization, non-interference between classes, and social harmony. His theory of justice aimed to differentiate classes based on aptitude tests.
Plato was a Greek philosopher who lived from 427-347 BC. He was a student of Socrates and founded the Academy, one of the first institutions of higher learning. His most famous work is The Republic. In it, he discusses his ideal state and conception of justice. Plato believes the ideal state functions like an extended family, with different classes performing specialized roles for the good of the whole. Individual justice is achieved through self-control and rational thought dominating over desires. The just state and just individual both have different parts working harmoniously together.
This SlideShare introduces students to political science. It gives the basic understanding of the discipline and how political science can be studied scientifically.
This document provides an overview of the meaning and scope of political science. It defines political science as the study of the state, government, and power. The scope of political science has expanded over time to include the study of political systems, governments, power dynamics, and human political behavior. The document also distinguishes between political science as an academic discipline and politics in practice. While political science involves the systematic study of political institutions and processes, politics refers more broadly to political activities, processes, and conflicts within society.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Swiss philosopher born in 1712 who published two influential works in 1762, The Social Contract and Emile. In these works, he outlined his theory of social contract which argued that people form societies and consent to be governed through an implicit agreement, surrendering some freedoms for the stability and protections provided by the state. This social contract creates a sovereign, the general will of the people, and binds citizens to work for the common good of society over individual interests. Though criticized, Rousseau's ideas greatly influenced political thought and the French and American revolutions.
Hobbes argued that all humans are by nature equal in faculties of body and mind (i.e., no natural inequalities are so great as to give anyone a "claim" to an exclusive "benefit"). From this equality and other causes in human nature, everyone is naturally willing to fight one another: so that "during the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called warre; and such a warre as is of every man against every man". In this state every person has a natural right or liberty to do anything one thinks necessary for preserving one's own life; and life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short"
Easton constructed a systems theory model of politics that defines the basic processes of any political system. The model views the political system as converting "inputs" from the environment, like demands and support from citizens, into "outputs" like policies, plans and programs. There is also "feedback" as citizens react to outputs. The environment outside the political system also influences inputs, decision-making, outputs and feedback. However, critics argue the model presents an overly mechanical and rigid view of politics that better describes stable democracies and has a "black box" view of how decisions are made inside the political system.
Plato (427-347 BC) was a Greek philosopher who sought to address the injustice of Socrates' execution. In his works Republic, Statesman, and Laws, he explored questions of politics, justice, and the ideal state. Plato believed a just state requires a class structure with rulers governed by reason, guardians motivated by courage, and workers motivated by desires. The rulers' role is to understand the eternal Forms and implement justice by ensuring each class and individual performs the role suited to their nature. Plato's educational system was designed to produce a just state by training the ruling class in mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy to lead according to rational principles.
Almond, Almond’s Developmental Approach to Political SystemMahrukh Cheema
The document summarizes Gabriel Almond's structural functional approach to political science. It outlines Almond's view of a political system and the key concepts in his approach, including political structure, culture, and the functions of a system. Almond believed that political development occurs as systems differentiate structurally and cultures become more secular and rational. His approach provided a framework for comparing systems but was criticized for being ideologically conservative and not fully accounting for non-Western contexts.
Approaches to study the Political Science.pptxfecoxi8718
Traditional and behavioral approaches are two main methods used to study political science. [1] The traditional approach emphasizes studying political institutions and structures through a normative lens, focusing on how things should be. [2] In contrast, the behavioral approach studies political behavior empirically and aims for value-neutral analysis. It focuses on collecting measurable data on individuals and groups. [3] Both approaches make valuable contributions to the field but also have limitations, and an integrated approach may be best.
This document discusses political culture, which refers to the shared ideas, values, attitudes, and orientations that a majority of people in a state have about the political system. It defines political culture and outlines some of its key aspects and components. Political culture is shaped by both individual beliefs and societal values. It influences political behavior and can be classified into types like parochial, subject, participant, and authoritarian political cultures based on levels of awareness, participation, and expectations of influence. The development of political culture over time through differentiation of roles and rationalization of behavior is also addressed.
Aristotle viewed human nature as comprised of both body and soul, with the rational soul being unique to humans. He believed the function and goal of both individuals and the state is happiness, which is achieved through living virtuously according to reason. Aristotle analyzed politics, ethics, and different forms of government, but some of his views on slavery and the roles of citizens are seen as problematic today.
This document defines political culture and discusses theories of political culture in liberal democracies and authoritarian countries. It summarizes Almond and Verba's theory of civic culture, which identifies three types of political cultures (parochial, subject, participant) and argues a stable democracy requires a blending of these, especially a majority of participants. It also discusses theories of political trust, social capital, and post-materialism and how governments may respond to political culture.
Thomas Hobbes was a 17th century English philosopher known for developing social contract theory. He argued that individuals in a state of nature would consent to be governed by an absolute sovereign in order to escape a chaotic and dangerous condition. Hobbes believed people relinquished their rights and authorized the sovereign's absolute rule to maintain peace and security. His theory justified strong central authority but was criticized for limiting individual liberty.
This document discusses the key elements and definitions of a state according to political science. It outlines that a state consists of 4 essential elements: a population, a defined territory, a government, and sovereignty. It elaborates on each of these elements, including defining characteristics like a state requiring a permanent population living on a specific territory and having supreme internal and external power. The document also examines theories on the origin of states and their functions.
1) Aristotle was the first to systematically analyze existing constitutions using a comparative method and was well-versed in many disciplines including politics.
2) He regarded the ideal form of government as aristocracy but advocated for a mixed form of government with rule by rotation to prevent monopoly of political power.
3) In his work Politics, Aristotle analyzed the nature of the state and different constitutions, regarded the state as providing for individual happiness, and defined the state as prior to the individual.
The document discusses the key elements that constitute a state. It describes a state as having four essential elements: a population living within a defined territory and organized under a government that exercises sovereignty. Population, territory, government, and sovereignty are the fundamental components of any political organization that can be considered a state.
The SlideShare introduces the concept Political system, giving the futures of African political systems and different types of African political system.
Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher and political radical. He is primarily known today for his moral philosophy, especially his principle of utilitarianism, which evaluates actions based upon their consequences. ... Happiness, according to Bentham, is thus a matter of experiencing pleasure and lack of pain.
Utilitarianism is one of the best known and most influential moral theories. ... Utilitarians believe that the purpose of morality is to make life better by increasing the number of good things (such as pleasure and happiness) in the world and decreasing the number of bad things (such as pain and unhappiness).
Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher born in 384 BCE who founded the Lyceum in Athens and wrote on many topics. He is considered one of the greatest thinkers in Western history. Aristotle viewed the state as a natural condition for humans that allows them to live a good life and fulfill their needs through cooperation and division of labor. He established political science as a discipline and believed the state's purpose was the good life of its citizens. Aristotle died in 322 BCE at age 63 in Chalcis, Greece.
Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher born in 384 BCE who founded the Lyceum in Athens and wrote on many topics. He is considered one of the greatest thinkers in Western history. Aristotle viewed the state as a natural condition for humans that allows them to live a good life and fulfill their needs through cooperation and division of labor. He established political science as a discipline and saw the state as prior to individuals, with the state ensuring harmony between citizens. Aristotle died in 322 BCE at the age of 63 in Chalcis, Greece.
This document provides an overview of the meaning and scope of political science. It defines political science as the study of the state, government, and power. The scope of political science has expanded over time to include the study of political systems, governments, power dynamics, and human political behavior. The document also distinguishes between political science as an academic discipline and politics in practice. While political science involves the systematic study of political institutions and processes, politics refers more broadly to political activities, processes, and conflicts within society.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Swiss philosopher born in 1712 who published two influential works in 1762, The Social Contract and Emile. In these works, he outlined his theory of social contract which argued that people form societies and consent to be governed through an implicit agreement, surrendering some freedoms for the stability and protections provided by the state. This social contract creates a sovereign, the general will of the people, and binds citizens to work for the common good of society over individual interests. Though criticized, Rousseau's ideas greatly influenced political thought and the French and American revolutions.
Hobbes argued that all humans are by nature equal in faculties of body and mind (i.e., no natural inequalities are so great as to give anyone a "claim" to an exclusive "benefit"). From this equality and other causes in human nature, everyone is naturally willing to fight one another: so that "during the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called warre; and such a warre as is of every man against every man". In this state every person has a natural right or liberty to do anything one thinks necessary for preserving one's own life; and life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short"
Easton constructed a systems theory model of politics that defines the basic processes of any political system. The model views the political system as converting "inputs" from the environment, like demands and support from citizens, into "outputs" like policies, plans and programs. There is also "feedback" as citizens react to outputs. The environment outside the political system also influences inputs, decision-making, outputs and feedback. However, critics argue the model presents an overly mechanical and rigid view of politics that better describes stable democracies and has a "black box" view of how decisions are made inside the political system.
Plato (427-347 BC) was a Greek philosopher who sought to address the injustice of Socrates' execution. In his works Republic, Statesman, and Laws, he explored questions of politics, justice, and the ideal state. Plato believed a just state requires a class structure with rulers governed by reason, guardians motivated by courage, and workers motivated by desires. The rulers' role is to understand the eternal Forms and implement justice by ensuring each class and individual performs the role suited to their nature. Plato's educational system was designed to produce a just state by training the ruling class in mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy to lead according to rational principles.
Almond, Almond’s Developmental Approach to Political SystemMahrukh Cheema
The document summarizes Gabriel Almond's structural functional approach to political science. It outlines Almond's view of a political system and the key concepts in his approach, including political structure, culture, and the functions of a system. Almond believed that political development occurs as systems differentiate structurally and cultures become more secular and rational. His approach provided a framework for comparing systems but was criticized for being ideologically conservative and not fully accounting for non-Western contexts.
Approaches to study the Political Science.pptxfecoxi8718
Traditional and behavioral approaches are two main methods used to study political science. [1] The traditional approach emphasizes studying political institutions and structures through a normative lens, focusing on how things should be. [2] In contrast, the behavioral approach studies political behavior empirically and aims for value-neutral analysis. It focuses on collecting measurable data on individuals and groups. [3] Both approaches make valuable contributions to the field but also have limitations, and an integrated approach may be best.
This document discusses political culture, which refers to the shared ideas, values, attitudes, and orientations that a majority of people in a state have about the political system. It defines political culture and outlines some of its key aspects and components. Political culture is shaped by both individual beliefs and societal values. It influences political behavior and can be classified into types like parochial, subject, participant, and authoritarian political cultures based on levels of awareness, participation, and expectations of influence. The development of political culture over time through differentiation of roles and rationalization of behavior is also addressed.
Aristotle viewed human nature as comprised of both body and soul, with the rational soul being unique to humans. He believed the function and goal of both individuals and the state is happiness, which is achieved through living virtuously according to reason. Aristotle analyzed politics, ethics, and different forms of government, but some of his views on slavery and the roles of citizens are seen as problematic today.
This document defines political culture and discusses theories of political culture in liberal democracies and authoritarian countries. It summarizes Almond and Verba's theory of civic culture, which identifies three types of political cultures (parochial, subject, participant) and argues a stable democracy requires a blending of these, especially a majority of participants. It also discusses theories of political trust, social capital, and post-materialism and how governments may respond to political culture.
Thomas Hobbes was a 17th century English philosopher known for developing social contract theory. He argued that individuals in a state of nature would consent to be governed by an absolute sovereign in order to escape a chaotic and dangerous condition. Hobbes believed people relinquished their rights and authorized the sovereign's absolute rule to maintain peace and security. His theory justified strong central authority but was criticized for limiting individual liberty.
This document discusses the key elements and definitions of a state according to political science. It outlines that a state consists of 4 essential elements: a population, a defined territory, a government, and sovereignty. It elaborates on each of these elements, including defining characteristics like a state requiring a permanent population living on a specific territory and having supreme internal and external power. The document also examines theories on the origin of states and their functions.
1) Aristotle was the first to systematically analyze existing constitutions using a comparative method and was well-versed in many disciplines including politics.
2) He regarded the ideal form of government as aristocracy but advocated for a mixed form of government with rule by rotation to prevent monopoly of political power.
3) In his work Politics, Aristotle analyzed the nature of the state and different constitutions, regarded the state as providing for individual happiness, and defined the state as prior to the individual.
The document discusses the key elements that constitute a state. It describes a state as having four essential elements: a population living within a defined territory and organized under a government that exercises sovereignty. Population, territory, government, and sovereignty are the fundamental components of any political organization that can be considered a state.
The SlideShare introduces the concept Political system, giving the futures of African political systems and different types of African political system.
Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher and political radical. He is primarily known today for his moral philosophy, especially his principle of utilitarianism, which evaluates actions based upon their consequences. ... Happiness, according to Bentham, is thus a matter of experiencing pleasure and lack of pain.
Utilitarianism is one of the best known and most influential moral theories. ... Utilitarians believe that the purpose of morality is to make life better by increasing the number of good things (such as pleasure and happiness) in the world and decreasing the number of bad things (such as pain and unhappiness).
Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher born in 384 BCE who founded the Lyceum in Athens and wrote on many topics. He is considered one of the greatest thinkers in Western history. Aristotle viewed the state as a natural condition for humans that allows them to live a good life and fulfill their needs through cooperation and division of labor. He established political science as a discipline and believed the state's purpose was the good life of its citizens. Aristotle died in 322 BCE at age 63 in Chalcis, Greece.
Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher born in 384 BCE who founded the Lyceum in Athens and wrote on many topics. He is considered one of the greatest thinkers in Western history. Aristotle viewed the state as a natural condition for humans that allows them to live a good life and fulfill their needs through cooperation and division of labor. He established political science as a discipline and saw the state as prior to individuals, with the state ensuring harmony between citizens. Aristotle died in 322 BCE at the age of 63 in Chalcis, Greece.
State is a political society with its four elements - population, fixed territory, government, and sovereignty. It acts through law & it has certain powers by which it performs its functions. Society. • Society is both an organization as well as a system of social relationships
Have a look at this law and justice essay sample that we've prepared for you. If you want more information, go to https://www.lawessays.org/write-my-law-essay/law-and-justice-essays/
Aristotle developed a philosophical system called realism that rejected Plato's idealism. While influenced by Plato, Aristotle believed that ideas could only be understood by studying real, existing things in the material world using observation and the senses. He outlined seven principles of his realism, including that universal ideas exist in matter but not vice versa, that the soul aims to balance rational thought with emotions and desires, and that matter is always changing towards some purpose or final form determined by its definition.
State, Government and Society and differences among themJaskanwarSingh10
This presentation tells about State, Government and Society and what are the differences among the three of them. Suitable for a student of B.A. Sem - 1 of Punjab University.
Aristotle was a pioneering philosopher born in 384 BC in Stagira. He studied under Plato at Plato's Academy and later founded his own school called the Lyceum. Aristotle made contributions across many fields of knowledge including logic, mathematics, physics, biology, psychology, metaphysics, ethics, politics and aesthetics. He used scientific methods of investigation and was analytical and logical in his treatment of subjects. His influence on Western philosophy has been profound and enduring.
This document provides an introduction and overview of Aristotle's book "Ethics". Some key points:
- Ethics and Politics together form Aristotle's theory of practical human activity and conduct. Ethics focuses on character formation while Politics examines the role of laws/institutions.
- Ethics deals with developing virtues and good character as the key to happiness. Politics explores how political communities can help secure good character through laws and social forces.
- Aristotle views ethics as a study of moral education to develop qualities that make one a good citizen. It discusses virtues and vices and how they are formed through habits.
- The goal of human action is happiness, which Aristotle defines as activity in accordance with virtue over a complete life
Aristotle was a pioneering philosopher born in 384 BC in Greece. He studied under Plato at Plato's Academy and later founded his own school called the Lyceum. Aristotle made pioneering contributions to logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology and the arts. He wrote on diverse topics and his works were encyclopedic in scope. Aristotle emphasized observation and experience in his scientific method. He believed the aim of education was to attain happiness and goodness. His works had immense influence on Western philosophy and other fields for centuries.
Aristotle was a pioneering philosopher born in 384 BC in Greece. He studied under Plato at Plato's Academy and later founded his own school called the Lyceum. Aristotle made pioneering contributions to logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology and the arts. He wrote on diverse topics and his works were encyclopedic in scope. Aristotle emphasized observation and experience in his scientific method. He believed the aim of education was to attain happiness and goodness. His works had immense influence on Western philosophy and other fields for centuries.
Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher born in 384 BC in Stagira, Greece. He studied at Plato's Academy in Athens and later founded his own school, the Lyceum. Some of Aristotle's most influential works focused on logic, politics, ethics, and science. He defined happiness as the exercise of virtue throughout one's life and believed logic and reason were essential tools for understanding reality. Aristotle had a profound influence on Western philosophy and science for over two millennia.
Gerald McCabeAug 26, 2021 1111 AMNatural law concepts are preMatthewTennant613
Gerald McCabe
Aug 26, 2021 11:11 AM
Natural law concepts are present in the writings of Plato and Aristotle even though they were written centuries beforehand. We know that Thomas Aquinas incorporated Aristotelian concepts into his Christian worldview. (Hill, 2006,58). We can detect the precursors of natural law concepts in the work of Plato and Aristotle through their search for the purpose of man, and the presence of good and evil in individuals and the larger world. They came very close to ascribing divine intervention as an explanation for purpose.
In After the Natural Law, Hill makes a fundamental point about our modern world. Scientific progress has made tremendous leaps in explaining how things function in our world, but the explanations about the why are less satisfying. (Hill, 2006, 34.) Hill recounts that the decline of natural law thought resulted in the loss of God. (Hill, 2006, 14). We are then left with a materialistic view of the world stripped of a moral compass.
In the Dialogues of Plato, there is a sense that the world is ordered. In reviewing Hill’s After the Natural Law, Mangino describes how Hill argued for a return to a worldview that sees the world as an ordered, and intelligible place, rather than the accidental by-product of a materialist-deterministic environment. (Mangino, 2019). This would be a recognition that things exist for a purpose and that final causes dictate the final form they take. (Hill, 2006, 43.)
In our technological, secular world, society as a collective has found the solution to many problems, but answering why we exist and for what purpose is a much more complex problem. Natural law has offered a response to this question for centuries. The difficulty is the acceptance of the precepts of natural law in our contemporary society.
Individuals who believe in God can freely accept that human beings have a purpose. This teleological concept of purpose was explored by Aristotle in his scientific search for the purpose of mankind. (Hill, 2006, 45.) For Christians, both human nature and reason are created by God, and the moral goodness of choices is illuminated by this fact. (Lee, 2019, 279).
Tham examined how the natural law concepts went into decline with contemporary debates over the biological nature of mankind. (Tham,2014). This resulted in arguments being put forth about human evolution, and changing accepted societal standards. This discussion is outside of the purpose of this examination of natural law. We are concerned here with questions of ethics: the choices between right and wrong and what motivates people to act as they do. These are the questions that preoccupied Socrates and Plato in the readings.
These ethical choices are re- examined in what has come to be known as new natural law theory (NNLT). (Lee, 2019) NNLT focuses on the acts of will and the fulfillment of humans. This is closer to the questions that were discussed by Socrates and Plato.
Deinhammer wrote that natural law is embedd ...
1. Aristotle was a Greek philosopher born in 384 BC who studied under Plato and taught Alexander the Great. He believed the world was structured in a way that made rational understanding possible through observation and reasoned inquiry.
2. Aristotle viewed nature as consisting of individual species with fixed essences that developed through regular biological processes like birth, growth, and decay rather than creation or revolution. He identified material, formal, efficient, and final causes to explain natural phenomena.
3. Aristotle made influential contributions to logic, metaphysics, ethics, psychology, and other fields. His works were enormously influential in both medieval scholasticism and modern thought. He is considered one of the most important philosophers of all time.
The document defines the key elements of the state as population, territory, government, and sovereignty. It provides definitions of the state from various scholars and thinkers. The state is distinguished from society, nation, and government. The state is a permanent political organization that exists within a defined territory and population. Government is the temporary institution through which the state functions and enforces laws. A nation refers more to a people joined by ethnic or cultural ties, while a state is a legal political entity.
The document defines the key elements of the state as population, territory, government, and sovereignty. It distinguishes the state from society, nation, and government. The state is defined as a permanent political organization that exists independently within a fixed territory and exercises sovereignty, while government refers specifically to the ruling administration through which the state functions. Society predates the state and is broader than the state, while nation refers more to a cultural or ethnic identity than a legal-political entity. The branches of government - the legislature, executive, and judiciary - are also summarized, along with some of their core powers and functions.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
PPT on Direct Seeded Rice presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
CLASS 12th CHEMISTRY SOLID STATE ppt (Animated)eitps1506
Description:
Dive into the fascinating realm of solid-state physics with our meticulously crafted online PowerPoint presentation. This immersive educational resource offers a comprehensive exploration of the fundamental concepts, theories, and applications within the realm of solid-state physics.
From crystalline structures to semiconductor devices, this presentation delves into the intricate principles governing the behavior of solids, providing clear explanations and illustrative examples to enhance understanding. Whether you're a student delving into the subject for the first time or a seasoned researcher seeking to deepen your knowledge, our presentation offers valuable insights and in-depth analyses to cater to various levels of expertise.
Key topics covered include:
Crystal Structures: Unravel the mysteries of crystalline arrangements and their significance in determining material properties.
Band Theory: Explore the electronic band structure of solids and understand how it influences their conductive properties.
Semiconductor Physics: Delve into the behavior of semiconductors, including doping, carrier transport, and device applications.
Magnetic Properties: Investigate the magnetic behavior of solids, including ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism, and ferrimagnetism.
Optical Properties: Examine the interaction of light with solids, including absorption, reflection, and transmission phenomena.
With visually engaging slides, informative content, and interactive elements, our online PowerPoint presentation serves as a valuable resource for students, educators, and enthusiasts alike, facilitating a deeper understanding of the captivating world of solid-state physics. Explore the intricacies of solid-state materials and unlock the secrets behind their remarkable properties with our comprehensive presentation.
The cost of acquiring information by natural selectionCarl Bergstrom
This is a short talk that I gave at the Banff International Research Station workshop on Modeling and Theory in Population Biology. The idea is to try to understand how the burden of natural selection relates to the amount of information that selection puts into the genome.
It's based on the first part of this research paper:
The cost of information acquisition by natural selection
Ryan Seamus McGee, Olivia Kosterlitz, Artem Kaznatcheev, Benjamin Kerr, Carl T. Bergstrom
bioRxiv 2022.07.02.498577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.02.498577
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
Mending Clothing to Support Sustainable Fashion_CIMaR 2024.pdfSelcen Ozturkcan
Ozturkcan, S., Berndt, A., & Angelakis, A. (2024). Mending clothing to support sustainable fashion. Presented at the 31st Annual Conference by the Consortium for International Marketing Research (CIMaR), 10-13 Jun 2024, University of Gävle, Sweden.
PPT on Alternate Wetting and Drying presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
ESA/ACT Science Coffee: Diego Blas - Gravitational wave detection with orbita...Advanced-Concepts-Team
Presentation in the Science Coffee of the Advanced Concepts Team of the European Space Agency on the 07.06.2024.
Speaker: Diego Blas (IFAE/ICREA)
Title: Gravitational wave detection with orbital motion of Moon and artificial
Abstract:
In this talk I will describe some recent ideas to find gravitational waves from supermassive black holes or of primordial origin by studying their secular effect on the orbital motion of the Moon or satellites that are laser ranged.
ESA/ACT Science Coffee: Diego Blas - Gravitational wave detection with orbita...
Aristotle
1. NAME : DR MOMINA SAJJAD.
PRESENTATION: Aristotle and Politics
2.
3. ARISTOTLE AS A
PHILOSOPHER (322-384 BCE)
He was a Greek Philosopher and polymath. Also
a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the
Great.
His writings cover many subjects including
Physics, metaphysics , poetry, theatre, music,
logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government,
ethics, biology, and zoology.
Aristotle’s were first to create a comprehensive
system of western philosophy, encompassing
ethics, aesthetics, logic, science, politics, and
metaphysics.
5. Nature of Polis or State:
In Aristotle’s own words:
“Our own observation tells us that every polis is a community (or
association) of persons formed with a view to some good purpose. I
say ‘good’ because in their actions all men do in fact aim at what
they think good.
Clearly then all communities aim at some good, that one which is the
supreme and embraces all others will have also as its aim the
supreme good. That is the community which we call polis (or State)
and that type of community we call political.”
Let us now see what the definition wants to emphasize. According to
Aristotle, the state is a community of persons. Every community has
certain purpose and that purpose is good. As a community the state
has a purpose, and that purpose is also good.
6. But the state is not an ordinary community. It is the highest of
all communities and naturally its purpose shall be the highest
or supreme. It is thus evident that like all associations the state
is an association. But its purpose is different from that of other
associations. Again, it is not an ordinary association. It enjoys
the highest rank or position in the society or social structure.
As a typical biologist, Aristotle has analyzed the nature of state
by dividing it into several components. He has said that we are
accustomed to analyze other composite things till they can be
subdivided no further, let us in the same way examine the
state and its component parts. The application of natural
method reveals that the state is natural or exists by nature.
In the analysis of the natural method we find the application of
physic and nomos. Physic implies growth, nature and
fundamental reality. The meaning of nomos is man-made,
convention and custom. Aristotle says that the state is
characterized by natural growth. But, during its different stages
of progress, man-made laws and conventions have
7. The Greek word Koinonia means both community and
association. Although, according to sociologists, there is
a subtle difference between community and association
we shall use the words here in the same sense and also
interchangeably.
It is true that man is, by nature, a self-interest seeking
animal and he does not hesitate to oppose the fulfillment
of others’ interests. So the law, justice, institutions and
conventions which are made by man may be evil. But
Aristotle does not accept it.
He is of opinion that laws and conventions are basically
good and man has made them to serve their beneficial
objectives. To sum up, the state has developed naturally.
It must not be treated as a result on contract or human
contrivance. Men have made laws, institutions and
conventions for their own benefit and these have
facilitated and enriched the functioning of the state.
If the state is a natural development there are definitely
several stages. What are the stages? Aristotle begins his
argument by saying that the first stage of the state is the
8. The union between male and female constitutes the basis of family. Again, the
union between male and female is essential for reproduction, since each is
powerless without the other.
This is not a matter of choice, but the result of desire implanted by nature and
this desire is to be found in all animals. Family includes other components such
as slave, ox, and plough. Without these components a family cannot maintain
its own physical existence. In Aristotle’s definition: “This association of persons,
established according to the law of nature and continuing day after day, is the
household.”
The household is the simplest form of association and meets the simplest
necessities. But man’s necessities are various and naturally it is beyond the
capacity of the family to meet those demands.
Several families have formed a village to fulfill the greater demands and
necessities. It generally comes into being through the processes of nature. The
village, although higher than the family, cannot cope with the growing demands
of its members.
When several villages are conglomerated that gives rise to a Polis or State:
“The final association formed of several villages is the city or state. For all
practical purposes the process is now complete., self-sufficiency has been
reached and so, while it started as a means of securing life itself, it is now in
position to secure the good life”—(Aristotle).
Aristotle observes that besides securing life itself, it has also a greater purpose,
i.e., to secure a good life. Elsewhere he has said that common interest is a
factor in bringing men together, since the interest of all contributes to the good
life of each. The good life is indeed the chief end of the state—both corporately
and individually.
9. Aristotle’s idea of the fulfillment of necessities of life is not
to be detached from the conception of the attainment of
ethical values. We have already noted that, according to
Aristotle, for the sake of good life the exercise of both
ethical and intellectual virtues is very much essential and
the former requires the easy availability of sufficient
amount of external goods. Only the state with an adequate
size and sufficient population can ensure the smooth
supply of external goods.
In Aristotle’s view, man seeks to satisfy his physical or
material demands to attain good life. Any institution or
community other than polis is insufficient. Therefore, the
membership of polis is essential.
10. Man is by Nature a Political
Animal:
It is now clear that the state is a natural form of
organization and by nature man has become the
member of the state. Therefore, both state and
individuals as its members are natural. Aristotle does
not stop here. Continuing his logic he has said that
man is by nature a political animal.
The term political animal means an animal that lives
in polis or state or polis. Nature has inspired and
encouraged man to be a part of the state. Aristotle
believed that it was not possible for man to live
outside the state.
It is the state that fulfills all his requirements. If out of
ill luck no man can get the membership of polis he will
come down to the level of sub-man. On the other
hand, if anybody refuses to live in a state he may be
regarded as a superman.
11. Organic Character of State:
A mere glance over Aristotle’s theory of state drives home an important point that
it is organic in nature—which means that the state is a compounded whole. He
has made distinction between “aggregate” and “whole”.
The former means that different parts of a thing are juxtaposed together to make
a unit. By their juxtaposition the parts make a unity. But the whole means a
different thing.
The polis or state is a whole. The state has several parts. But when they are put
together the unity will mean a different matter. The state is not an aggregate of
individuals. Its members are not atomized individuals related to one another only
by the fact that they inhabit the same territory.
When the individuals form a whole they share a joint activity, and, at the same
time, lose their separateness. Again, if the parts are separated from the whole,
they will be useless. This is the organic theory of state.
Aristotle has said—the city or state has priority over the household and over any
individual. For the whole must be prior to the parts. Separate hand or foot from
the whole body and they will no longer be hand or foot.
An individual is not fully self-sufficient after separation. To put it in other words,
only the membership of state makes him self-sufficient and helps him fulfil his
ambition and also to be moral and virtuous.
The morality and virtuousness are the characteristics of man only. When man
reaches the stage of full development he automatically becomes a member of a
polis and a separation between man and polis will degenerate the former to the
level of beast.
12. If man is an integral part of the state, can it be said that
he is completely blended with it? Aristotle’s answer is a
categorical no. He never thinks of a mixture. Although
man is a part of the whole, he will stand in the same
relationship to the whole as other parts. It implies that the
individual will be able to keep his separate identity intact.
His state is a compound in which original parts are still
discernible. In the state the individuals will perform
different functions, but these functions are
complementary.
That is, each person is dependent upon the other. By
advocating that the membership of the polis does not
obliterate the separate identity of man and group,
Aristotle has acknowledged the plurality of parts
composing the state.
On this point he has criticized Plato who advocated
communism to do away with all sorts of differences.
Aristotle does not think that by obliterating the differences
the state will be a concrete and complete whole.
13. Individual and State:
The city or state has priority over the household and over any individual among
us. This observation of Aristotle has encouraged the critics to frame a charge that
he has deliberately subordinated the individual to the all-powerful wishes of the
state.
Although he acknowledged the separate existence of the individual, he did not
think that the individual would not have separate ideal, morality and goodness
from those of the state.
The individual, according to Aristotle, can achieve these qualities only through
the membership of and subordination to the state. He cannot have rights and
liberties apart from the state or against the state.
The individual, although not merged with the state, is completely dependent upon
the state for pursuit of his moral and ethical objectives. Aristotle holds that
without the membership of the state the lofty ideals of individuals will remain
unrealized.
But the individual’s dependence upon or subordination to the state is an issue of
great controversy. Now let us analyze the matter from a different angle. If the
objective of the state is to help the individual to pursue his own personal interest
and objectives, then the state is subordinate to the individual.
For example, if the individual thinks that his personal protection must get priority
and it is the duty of the state to help him, then the opinion of the individual will get
priority over that of the state.
No question of compromise can arise in respect of personal protection. But if the
purpose of the individual is to help the polis in achieving the common good, then
the opinion of the state will always dominate and the individual must submit to
the state.
14. Attainment of common good may or may not include private benefit.
Whatever may be the case, the individual’s interest cannot claim special
treatment. He must sacrifice himself for the sake of the common good
embodied in the state.
The state imagined by Aristotle is the highest manifestation of morality, ideal,
ethics and values, and all these are beyond all sorts of fragmentation. Since
the individual is rational and his interest does not exhaust in performing
certain political activities, he wants to attain the above-mentioned values and
ideals and only the membership of the state can help him.
Aristotle is nurtured in Greek philosophy which always thinks of the
community as a whole. Like all ancient Greeks, he has never thought
actively about the rights and obligations of man. To all Greek philosophers,
the attainment of the common good was the sole purpose of any polis. The
view of the individual cannot get precedence over that of the state.
In this respect we may say that Aristotle subordinates individuals to the
state, if we mean that, in balancing the claims of the individuals and the
state, he favours the state more and individuals less. Although this was the
view of Greek philosophers, the same thing is to be found in the democratic
institutions of modern times.
The democratic institution of ostracism by which individuals could be
banished without being convicted of any formal charge provides a good
example of the general Greek view of the legitimate power of the group over
15. Functions of State:
Aristotle has not elaborately analyzed the different functions of the state. The reason
is unknown to us.
He has not viewed the state from an ordinary point of view. The state is not simply a
pact of mutual protection or an agreement to exchange goods and services.
If certain people assemble together and enter into a pact to materialize commercial
interests and mutual protection and for that purpose form an association that cannot
be called a state.
In ancient Greece there were many such associations but they were not worthy of
being called a state. The state is more than a contractual society and its function is not
to help its members to gain few commercial and economic benefits. Its purpose is to
attain virtue. If it fails in this sphere it will be an alliance.
The state is intended to enable all, in their households and their kingships, to live well,
meaning by that a full and satisfying life. The citizens and inhabitants will not have a
satisfying life if they have not established a relationship among themselves through
marriages and brotherhoods.
So, mere formation of associations does not make a state. In the words of Aristotle
“the political association which we call a state exists not simply for the purpose of
living together, but for the sake of noble actions. Those who do noble deeds are
therefore contributing to the quality of the political association.”
What Aristotle wants to say is that the objective of the state is to make the life of the
individual noble and happy. This is the most important function. But the state must
also look after the security and general welfare of its citizens. It, of course, comes
under secondary functions.
His theory of the function of the state is quite different from that of Locke. The purpose
of Locke’s contract is to establish a civil society and the primary function of the civil
society is the preservation of rights of its members against the infringement by others.
16. The state will ensure rights through the use of force. Any violation of rights and
misappropriation of property shall be prevented by the state alone. The state, in
Locke’s view, is the manifestation of combined strength and force.
It is the legal right of the individual to claim that their rights, liberties and property are
to be protected and, at the same time, it is the legal as well as moral duty of the state
to fulfil this demand.
But nowhere has Locke written of ennoblement of the citizens’ life. Here lies the
fundamental difference between Locke and Aristotle. A real state is concerned with
both outward and inward actions of man. If the state makes itself busy only with the
outward actions, it will do only half of its functions.
Aristotle has emphasized upon education. Education is the most powerful weapon of
making men good or of training them to virtue. Education can be impacted by the
institutions set up by the state.
On this point Aristotle follows Plato very strictly. The object of institutions should be to
train men to goodness, not only to intellectual, but to moral and physical, excellence.
The state should be the school of citizens. The state in Aristotle’s theory is a
reformatory. Why the state is entrusted with this task he has not vividly discussed. Our
opinion is, since the state is the supreme organization it is entitled to look after the
interests of all men in a balanced way which no other association or institution can do.
The outlook of church or any other religious institution is highly biased. These
organizations or institutions cannot maintain discipline in education.
17. CRITICISM ON ARISTOTLE
THEORY
Aristotle’s theory of state has been variously criticized. The
first criticism against his theory of state is it is totalitarian in
character. His concept of the state is all- embracing. The
individuals in his state have no separate status. They are
completely merged with the state. Its organic nature
reveals the totalitarian feature.
If the individuals are separated from the state they will lose
their importance as the separated parts of human or
animal body lose their activity. Critics are of view that this
contention of Aristotle about the relationship between the
state and individuals is unacceptable.
Secondly, in Aristotle’s theory of state, associations or
communities have no separate importance or position. The
state or polis embraces all other communities. They owe
their existence to the state. It means that all the
communities are merged in the body of the state.
18. It implies that the polis has absolute control over all communities. He observes—”all
forms of community are like parts of political community”. It is now quite obvious that
both the individuals and the community are integral parts of the polis. This view of
state is anti-democratic. We do not regard individuals or associations as mere
appendix parts of the state. In modern times, the community plays the important part
in the field of developing the personality of individuals.
Thirdly, it is not true that the state or polis is the greatest manifestation of supreme
good. It aims at some good no doubt but not the supreme good. By supreme good he
means complete human good, the good life of all members of the polis as distinct from
the lesser goods or partial welfare of the individuals.
In real life, the state in no capacity can mould or determine the character of individuals
in an absolute way. The state has a role, but it shares with numerous other
communities. By denying giving importance to the community he has done injustice to
it.
When he says that the polis is the manifestation of supreme good he wants to assert
that it is an institution of supreme authority. The state, in practical life, is never the
holder of supreme authority.
Although Aristotle does not talk about sovereignty in its absolute sense, his analysis
indicates that he had developed a fascination about absolute nature of sovereignty.
The absolutist character of a state is always inimical to the balanced development of
human personality.
19. In spite of these criticisms something need to be said in
support of his concept. According to Aristotle the state is
not the product of any contract. It is natural. This does not
mean that man has no role behind the creation of the
state. The evolution of man’s consciousness and
intelligence has helped the creation of state.
It has not been made by certain individuals all on a
sudden. Efforts of centuries lie behind the creation of a
state. This is the evolutionary theory of state. It is also
called the scientific theory.
Family, community and state—all are perfectly natural. We
all agree with this contention of Aristotle. Even modern
thinkers are of opinion that the state is the final form as a
political organization.
20. Classification of Governments
of Aristotle:
Some writers do not make any distinction between state
and government. They use government and state in one
and the same sense while giving a classification of states.
Modern writers do not agree with this type of classification.
According to them, there can be no classification of states,
as all the states are equal in so much as the four
attributes-population, territory, government and
sovereignty-are essential for all the states. American writer
Willoughby is of the view that there can be no classification
of states; the states can be classified only on the basis of
administration. In fact, the classification of the
governments is the classification of the states. State
expresses its will through the government. Leacock and
Gilchrist also agree that there should be the classification
of governments.
21. Aristotle’s classification of states
is based on two principles:
(1) The number of persons who exercise supreme power;
(2) The ends they seek to serve self-interest or benefit of the community.
Aristotle was of the view that when the rulers aimed at the good of the
community, the states would be a pure form of state. When the rulers in such a
state became selfish, the state would be called a perverted state.
According to Aristotle, if sovereignty resides in one person, it is Monarchy. Its
perverted form is Tyranny. If sovereignty resides in a small minority of the
population, it is Aristocracy. If this small minority uses the sovereignty for its own
selfish ends, it is Oligarchy. If the sovereign power resides in a large proportion of
the population, it is polity. Its perverted form is Democracy.
Aristotle’s Cycle of political change:
Aristotle has not only given the classification of states or governments, he has
also tried to investigate their development and cycle of change. According to him,
change has taken place in all the forms of administration as a natural process,
because the forms of state revolve like the wheels of a cycle.
According to him, “The first governments were kingships; probably for this
reason, in olden times, when cities were small, men of eminent virtues were few.
They were made kings because they were made benefactors and hence benefits
could only be bestowed by virtuous men. But when many persons equal in merit
arose, against the pre-eminence of one, they formed a Commonwealth and set
up a constitution. The ruling class soon deteriorated and enriched themselves out
of the public treasury. Riches became the path to honour and hence oligarchies
grew up.
22. They passed into tyrannies, and tyrannies into democracies. The love of gain
in the ruling classes always tended to diminish their number and so it
strengthened the masses. The masses, in the end, set upon their masters
and established democracies”.
It is clear from this statement of Aristotle that first of all monarchy war
established in the society and the superior person in the society was elected
as king. After some time when the kings began to exploit the masses for
their selfish ends, tyranny was established.
People did not tolerate this type of administration for long and they gave the
sovereign power to a few intellectuals. Thus, Aristocracy was established.
With the lapse of time, the character of Aristocracy deteriorated and
Oligarchy was established. But the people could not, for long, tolerate a
government, the aim of which was the benefit of the ruling class-alone.
When opportunity came, citizens as a whole made a successful revolt
against such authority and established a Polity, the supreme power being
vested in the hands of a large proportion of the population.
It was used by them for the common good, “hen Polity became perverted, it
was substituted by Democracy. Democracy degenerates and people rise in
revolt against it and thus democracy disappears. Again the people elect a
warrior-statesman as their administrator and Monarchy is established. In this
way, Aristotle’s cycle of political change revolves.
23. Criticism of Aristotle’s
classification:
(1) Aristotle’s classification is unscientific and quantitative:
It is argued that his classification is not based on any scientific
principle as it lays emphasis on quantitative rather than
qualitative aspect. But this criticism does not hold good Aristotle,
being a disciple of Plato, could not ignore its spiritual aspect. He
has emphasised the aim f the state along with his classification.
Burgess has rightly said that Aristotle’s classification is spiritual
rather than numerical.
(2) Aristotle does not distinguish between State and
Government:
Criticising Aristotle’s classification, Dr. Garner has said, “Aristotle
does not distinguish between state and government, with the
result that his classification is the classification of states, while it
ought to be of governments. This criticism of Aristotle is not
justified because the distinction between the state and the
government is a modem concept”. According to Burgess,
“Aristotle’s classification is logical and the best, if his words
‘State’ and ‘sovereignty’ are substituted with government and
Rule respectively”.
24. (3) Aristotle’s classification does not cover all the modem
forms of Governments:
According to Seeley and Leacock, Aristotle could not conceive
the modern ‘country-states’. His classification is of small city-
states and not of big states. If his classification is accepted, we
shall have to place Absolute Monarchy, Constitutional, Elected
and Hereditary Monarchy in one and the same category.
This will bring similarity between the Monarchy as it prevails in
Saudi Arabia and Great Britain, while both are not the same.
Besides, modern forms of government are Parliamentary,
Presidential, Unitary and Federal types. Aristotle’s classification
does not include and explain these forms of governments.
(4) Democracy is not the worst form of Government:
According to Aristotle, Democracy is the worst form of
government and he has used it in the sense of a Rule of crowd.
This type of condition prevailed in Greece in Aristotle’s time, but
this is not the condition in modern times. In modern times, the
term democracy is used in a good sense and it is considered to
be the best form of government.
25. (5) Aristotle’s cycle of change does not fit in with the development of modern
state:
The cycle of political change given by Aristotle is applicable only to ancient Greece
and Rome and not to modern states. For example, dictatorship of the Communist
Party was established after absolute Monarchy in Russia.
In Germany after the First World War Emperor William II was dethroned and
Democracy was established. Democracy also failed in Germany and Dictatorship was
established. After World War II, Hitler’s Dictatorship was ended and Democracy was
established again in that country’s one part (West Germany).
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(6) There is no place for mixed Forms of Government in Aristotle’s
classification:
Modern governments are mixed governments. For example, Great Britain is
Monarchy, and the government in that country is Unitary and Parliamentary. There is
Federal, Parliamentary and Democratic Government m India. The U.S.A. is a
democratic and the government in that country is Presidential and Federal. These
forms of government have no place in Aristotle s classification.
(7) Aristotle’s classification is not applicable to ideocracy or theocracy:
According to Bluntschli, Aristotle’s classification is not applicable to Ideocracy or
Theocracy, because in this type of government the supreme power is attributed to
God or some other superhuman being or to an idea. The men who exercise authority
are deputies or vice- regents of God on this earth.
(8) Aristotle’s classification is also criticised for differentiating
between Aristocracy and Oligarchy, while modern political
thinkers do not attach any importance to this difference. It is also
not possible to say where Aristocracy ends and Polity begins.