Introduction to An Overview of Antipsychotic Drugs
Definition of psychosis, Causes of psychosis, Symptoms of psychosis, Classification of anti psychotic drugs, Mechanism of action, Pharmacokinetics, Adverse effects, Therapeutic uses, Contraindications, New inventions
Presented by
T. Niranjan Reddy
Department of Pharmacology
Introduction to An Overview of Antipsychotic Drugs
Definition of psychosis, Causes of psychosis, Symptoms of psychosis, Classification of anti psychotic drugs, Mechanism of action, Pharmacokinetics, Adverse effects, Therapeutic uses, Contraindications, New inventions
Presented by
T. Niranjan Reddy
Department of Pharmacology
A compiled Power point presentation on "Antipsychotic drugs" suitable for Undergraduate level medical students and also PG students in the subject of Pharmacology.
antipsychotics history, managment of psychosis,side effect of antipsychotics, mechanism of antipsychotics, atypical antipsychotics,2nd generation antipsychotics.
ANTIDEPRESSANTS: All you need to know...by RxVichu! :)RxVichuZ
This is my 50th powerpoint.......
Deals with Important tips while using ANTIDEPRESSANTS, their special precautions, ADRs and differential mechanisms.
Will be worthwhile for a precise insight!!
Thanking all viewers who have supported me all my ways to reach this 50th milestone!!
Regards,
Vishnu. :)
Anti psychotics & anti manic drugs, psychosis, neurosis, delusions, hallucinations, schizhophrenia, positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia, dopamine hypothesis,
A compiled Power point presentation on "Antipsychotic drugs" suitable for Undergraduate level medical students and also PG students in the subject of Pharmacology.
antipsychotics history, managment of psychosis,side effect of antipsychotics, mechanism of antipsychotics, atypical antipsychotics,2nd generation antipsychotics.
ANTIDEPRESSANTS: All you need to know...by RxVichu! :)RxVichuZ
This is my 50th powerpoint.......
Deals with Important tips while using ANTIDEPRESSANTS, their special precautions, ADRs and differential mechanisms.
Will be worthwhile for a precise insight!!
Thanking all viewers who have supported me all my ways to reach this 50th milestone!!
Regards,
Vishnu. :)
Anti psychotics & anti manic drugs, psychosis, neurosis, delusions, hallucinations, schizhophrenia, positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia, dopamine hypothesis,
Schizophrenia A chronic mental disorder involving a breakdown in the relation between thought, emotion, and behaviour, leading to faulty perception, inappropriate actions and feelings, withdrawal from reality and personal relationships into fantasy and delusion, and a sense of mental fragmentation.
Antipsychotic Agents Antipsychotic drugs are able to reduce psychotic symptoms in a wide variety of conditions, including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, psychotic depression and drug induced psychosis. They have also been termed neuroleptics, because they suppress motor activity and emotionalityClinical Efficacy of Antipsychotic Drugs
Antipsychotic drugs are effective in controlling symptoms of acute schizophrenia, when large doses may be needed.
Long-term antipsychotic treatment is often effective in preventing recurrence of schizophrenic attacks, and is a major factor in allowing schizophrenic patients to lead normal lives.
Classification of Antipsychotic Drugs Typical antipsychotics Phenothiazines (Chlorpromazine, Perphenazine, Fluphenazine, Thioridazine) Thioxanthenes (Flupenthixol, Clopenthixol) Butyrophenones (Haloperidol, Droperidol)
Atypical antipsychotics (Clozapine, Risperidone, Sulpiride, Olanzapine, Aripiprazole)
Depot preparations are often used for maintenance therapy.
Approximately 40% of chronic schizophrenic patients are poorly controlled by antipsychotic drugs; clozapine may be effective in some of these ‘antipsychotic-resistant’ cases.
Respiratory stimulants: types, complete discussion on indications, contraindications, assessment, patient notes and examples of stimulants both central and respiratory
Expectorants and Antitussives: types, complete discussion on indications, contraindications, assessment, patient notes and examples of expectorants and antitussives
Complete pharmacology of Non steroidal Anti inflammatory Drugs, classification, Mechanism of action, Pharmacological actions, Indications, Contraindications, Adverse effects
Pharmacology laboratory experiment, both invivo and invitro includes interpolation, matching , bracketing, three point, four point bioassays with a note on hypoglycemic activity, acute skin irritation, acute eye irritaiton, pyrogen test, gastrointestinal motility test, physiological salt solutions
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
2. Psychosis
• A symptom of mental illness
• Characterized by a distorted or non existent sense of reality
– Hallucinations
– Delusions
– Disorganized speech
– Disorganized or agitated behaviour
3. 1. Mood disorders (major depression or mania) with
psychotic features
2. Substance induced psychosis
3. Dementia with psychotic features
4. Delirium with psychotic features
5. Schizophrenia
4. Dopamine hypothesis
• Put forward by Arvid Carlsson
• “The clinical features of schizophrenia (sometime extended to
psychosis in general) is related to over activity of
dopaminergic function within the brain.”
5. Effects of Increasing Dopamine
• Dopamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter that is synthesized
by the conversion of tyrosine to DOPA, which undergoes
decarboxylation and forms dopamine.
• The functions of dopamine depend on the pathway involved.
They include:
1. Motor control in the nigrostriatal pathway.
2. Behavioural effects in the mesolimbic and mesocortical pathways.
3. Endocrine control in the tuberoinfundibular pathway.
6. Dopaminergic pathways
• Dopamine has been implicated in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia
in what is known as the dopamine hypothesis or theory.
• Carlson, who was awarded a Nobel Prize in 2000, originally
proposed this theory.
• Excess levels of dopamine have been linked to psychotic
behaviours, based on pharmacological evidence and various studies
involving humans and animals.
7. • Amphetamines cause increased levels of dopamine in the
brain and can result in acute psychotic episodes similar to what
is seen in schizophrenia.
• Furthermore, drugs used in Parkinson’s disease, including
levodopa and dopamine agonists, can cause hallucinations as a
side effect.
• It is also known that amphetamine, as well as other drugs that
act as dopamine agonists, worsen symptoms in patients with
schizophrenia.
8.
9.
10. • Studies with brain imaging have shown that there is increased
dopamine production and release in the striatum of the brain in
schizophrenic patients.
• Furthermore, amphetamine administration in schizophrenic
patients has been found to result in greater dopamine release
compared to control subjects.
11. • In animal studies, increased dopamine levels lead to
stereotyped, repetitive behaviours, like that which sometimes
occurs in schizophrenia.
• Animals that are administered potent D2 receptor agonists like
bromocriptine also develop such behaviours.
12. • In support of such evidence, dopamine antagonists, including
antipsychotic agents, have been consistently found to be
effective in treating the positive symptoms of schizophrenia.
• In fact, antagonist activity at the dopamine receptors is the
main mechanism action of the antipsychotics in clinical use for
schizophrenic patients.
13. Schizophrenia pathogenesis
• In schizophrenia, there is over activity of D2 receptors in the
mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway, which causes positive
symptoms.
• In contrast, negative symptoms may be caused by decreased activity
of D1 receptors in the mesocortical dopaminergic pathway.
• There have been new findings regarding the pathogenesis of
schizophrenia.
• Aside from the role of dopamine, it is believed that glutamate under
activity may play an important part in this condition.
14. Psychotic Disorder Medication
• Antipsychotic drugs work chiefly by blocking postsynaptic
dopamine D2 receptors.
• Therapeutic effects are achieved when there is a blockade of at
least 80 % of the D2 receptors.
• While the blockade of dopamine receptors is an immediate
effect of drug administration, the therapeutic effect may be
delayed for up to several weeks, and the reason for this is
unknown.
15. • The therapeutic effects of antipsychotic drugs
include decreased dopaminergic neuronal activity and an
upregulation of dopamine receptors.
• However, an immediate effect of antipsychotics is their
sedating quality, making them useful in acute behavioural
emergencies.
16. • Antipsychotics are broadly divided into two categories: first-
generation antipsychotics, also known as typical
antipsychotics, and second-generation antipsychotics, called
atypical antipsychotics.
• The first-generation antipsychotic agents were introduced in
the 1950s, while atypical second-generation agents were
developed in more recent times.
17. Classification
1. Phenothiazines
– Aliphatic side chain: Chlorpromazine
Triflupromazine
– Piperidine side chain: Thioridazine
– Piperazine side chain: Trifluoperazine
Fluphenazine
2. Butyrophenones
• Haloperidol
• Trifluperidol
• Penfluridol
19. Classification II
A. Typical /first generation antipsychotics
1. Phenothiazines: Chlorpromazine
2. Butyrophenones: Haloperidol
3. Thioxanthenes : Flupentixol
B. Atypical/second generation antipsychotics
– E.g.: Clozapine, Risperidone, Olanzapine, Quetiapine,
Aripiprazole
20. • Typical and atypical antipsychotics differ in relation to their
mechanism of action, side effect profile, and clinical effect.
• Typical antipsychotics primarily bind and inhibit dopaminergic D2
receptors and treat positive symptoms.
• Atypical antipsychotics bind to D2 receptors as well as serotonergic
5-HT2a receptors.
• Atypical agents treat positive symptoms, but may also have an effect
in improving negative symptoms and cognitive impairment because
of 5-HT2a receptor antagonism.
21. • First generation of antipsychotics agents Predominantly act as
antagonist at brains dopamine D2 receptors also blocks
1. Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors
2. Histamine receptors
3. Alpha adrenergic receptors
22. Pharmacokinetics
1. High rapid oral absorption
2. High lipophilic with high apparent volumes of distribution
3. Undergo extensive phase 1 metabolism by CYPs and
subsequent phase 2 conjugations
4. Excreted in urine and to some extent in the bile.
23.
24. • One of the key differences between typical and atypical
antipsychotic drugs is that the newer atypical agents have a
lower incidence of Extrapyramidal motor side effects.
• This is because the newer agents have activity at other
receptors.
• Other reasons for reduced Extrapyramidal effects may include
the fact that some of these drugs dissociate rapidly from the
dopamine receptor, while others act as partial agonists.
26. Side Effects of Antipsychotics
1. Extrapyramidal motor side effects
– Motor disturbances are the result of direct or
indirect blockade of D2 receptors in the nigrostriatal
dopaminergic pathway.
– The first-generation antipsychotic drugs are traditionally
associated with a greater incidence of motor disturbances.
– However, even the atypical antipsychotics can cause
Extrapyramidal effects, including olanzapine, quetiapine,
and risperidone.
28. 2. Cardiac effects
– Antipsychotics use may cause a prolonged QT interval, which
can lead to ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death.
3. Endocrine effects
– Blockade of dopamine receptors in the tuberoinfundibular
pathway results in increased prolactin secretion, as one of the
functions of dopamine is to suppress prolactin.
– Hyperprolactinemia can lead to menstrual irregularities, breast
enlargement, and galactorrhea.
29. 4. Anti-muscarinic effects
– Blockade of muscarinic cholinergic receptors may cause effects such
as dry mouth and eyes, blurred vision, increased intraocular
pressure, urinary retention, constipation, and confusion.
5. Anti-adrenergic effects
– The blockade of adrenergic receptors can result in orthostatic
hypotension and reflex tachycardia.
30. 6. Anti-histamine effects
– The blockade of histamine receptors can result in sedation.
– This is an effect of certain phenothiazine antipsychotics such as
chlorpromazine.
7. Metabolic and cardiovascular side effects
– This group of side effects is very important to consider.
– Antipsychotics can cause weight gain, diabetes mellitus, and
cardiovascular disease.
– These side effects are more common with the second-generation
atypical antipsychotics, such as olanzapine, clozapine, and quetiapine.
31. 8. Sexual dysfunction
– Decreased libido and erectile dysfunction may occur in men.
– Those conditions are a result of a combination of dopamine,
adrenergic and muscarinic receptor blockade.
9. Other side effects
– Include allergic reactions (e.g., urticaria), idiosyncratic reactions
such as obstructive jaundice (with phenothiazines), leukopenia
and agranulocytosis (higher incidence with clozapine).
32. 10. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome
• A rare syndrome occurring in 1—2 % of patients.
• It is characterized by hyperthermia, muscle rigidity, mental
confusion, and autonomic nervous system dysfunction.
• This syndrome is fatal in 10—20 % of the cases as it can
cause renal or cardiovascular failure.
• Treatment is by the immediate cessation of the antipsychotic
drug and administration of bromocriptine, a dopamine
receptor agonist, and dantrolene, a skeletal muscle relaxant.
33.
34. Bipolar Disorder Medication
Drugs used in the treatment of bipolar disorder include:
1. Lithium
2. Anti-epileptic drugs
3. Atypical antipsychotic drugs
4. Antidepressants (for bipolar depression)
5. Other drugs, including benzodiazepine, memantine,
amantadine, and ketamine.
35. Mood Stabilizers
• Lithium or an antiepileptic drug is typically used as a mood
stabilizer for the long-term treatment of bipolar disorder.
• They act prophylactically to prevent mood swings and
therefore reduce manic and depressive episodes.
36. Lithium:
• Lithium is used for the prophylactic treatment of bipolar disorder as
a mood stabilizer and in the treatment of acute mania.
• The mechanism of action of lithium is poorly understood.
• It may act by interfering with the formation of inositol triphosphate
and inhibiting kinases.
• Lithium has a narrow therapeutic range, between 0.5—1 mmol /L.
• At levels above 1.5 mmol /L, it becomes toxic.
37. Toxic effects of lithium include:
1. Gastrointestinal Disturbances Such As Nausea And Vomiting
2. Tremor
3. Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus
4. Renal Failure
5. Thyroid Enlargement
6. Hypothyroidism
7. Weight Gain
8. Hair Loss
9. Mild Cognitive Impairment
10. Acute toxicity can cause significant neurological effects,
including confusion, motor impairment, seizures, coma, and
death.
38.
39. Antiepileptic Drugs
• Certain antiepileptic drugs may also be used as a mood stabilizer in
the treatment of bipolar disorder.
• These include carbamazepine, lamotrigine, and sodium
valproate.
• They are clinically effective and have a better side effect profile than
lithium.
• The action of antiepileptic drugs in controlling bipolar disorder may
be related to their anticonvulsant activity and blockade of sodium
channels.
40. • There are some differences between the antiepileptic drugs
used for bipolar disorder.
• Carbamazepine and valproate can be used for the treatment of
acute mania.
• Both valproate and lamotrigine are effective for the long-term
treatment of bipolar disorder, whereas carbamazepine is less
effective in treating bipolar depression.
41. Atypical Antipsychotics
• Atypical antipsychotic drugs such as olanzapine and
risperidone have a role to play in treating bipolar disorder.
• Their main mechanism of action is a blockade of D2 receptors
as well as 5HT-2 receptors.
• All atypical antipsychotics can treat mania. Some may also be
effective in treating bipolar depression.
42. Antidepressants
• Antidepressants are to be used with caution in patients
with bipolar disorder as they may induce or exacerbate
mania.
• They may be administered in conjunction with a mood
stabilizer.
43. Clinical Uses of Antipsychotics
Antipsychotics are used in the treatment of:
1. Schizophrenia
2. Bipolar Disorder
3. Schizoaffective Disorder
4. Gilles De La Tourette’s Syndrome
5. Severe Anxiety (Short Term)
6. Pain And Restlessness For Palliative Care
44. • Antipsychotics are conventionally used for the management of
schizophrenia.
• Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder that affects 1 % of the
population, making it the most common psychotic disorder.
• It causes positive symptoms, such as delusions, hallucinations and
thought disorder, and negative symptoms, including social
withdrawal and a flattened affect.
• Longer-acting depot formulations of antipsychotic drugs are also
available and may be used in cases of patient preference or if
compliance is a problem.
45. • It should be noted that not all patients with schizophrenia respond to
therapy with antipsychotic agents.
• In patients who are resistant to two or more different antipsychotic agents,
clozapine is recommended, given its potency.
• However, because of its potentially dangerous side effects, including
leukopenia, agranulocytosis, and Myocarditis, it is usually reserved for
resistant cases.
• It requires close monitoring when used, with weekly blood tests in the first
6 months of use.
• About 30 % of patients have treatment-resistant schizophrenia, which
means that they are resistant to all available antipsychotics.
46.
47. Drug-Induced Dyskinesia
Motor side effect Description Management
Acute dystonia Spasms of the facial or neck
muscles. Occurs within the first
few weeks of commencing an
antipsychotic drug. Generally
decreases over time.
Improves when the
drug is ceased.
May be treated with
an anticholinergic.
Akathisia Psychomotor restlessness. Improves when the
drug is ceased.
May be treated with
an anticholinergic.
48. Parkinsonianism Bradykinesia, tremor,
rigidity and shuffling gait.
Improves when the
drug is ceased.
May be treated with an
anticholinergic.
Tardive
dyskinesia
A serious and potentially
disabling condition.
Involuntary movements of
the face, tongue, trunk, and
limbs. This occurs after
months or years of starting
a first-generation
antipsychotic drug,
affecting 20—40 % of
patients. More common in
patients over the age of 50.
It does not improve
when the drug is
ceased. Usually
irreversible.