The document provides an overview of the anatomy of the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. It describes the characteristics, lobes, surfaces, ligaments, vasculature including arteries, veins and lymphatics, and imaging appearance of the liver. For the gallbladder, it discusses the anatomy including relations, arterial blood supply, venous and lymphatic drainage, and the cystic duct. Finally, it outlines the parts, location, blood supply including arteries and veins, ducts, lymphatic drainage and imaging of the pancreas.
The document discusses the anatomy and clinical features of the anal canal and hemorrhoids. Key points include:
- The anal canal is 4 cm long and is lined by different types of epithelium above and below the pectinate line.
- Hemorrhoids are varicosities of the superior rectal veins that can be internal or external. They cause symptoms like bleeding with defecation and prolapse.
- Treatment depends on the grade of hemorrhoids and may include conservative measures, injections, banding, or surgery for more severe cases.
The document provides detailed information on the anatomy and physiology of the esophagus. It describes the extension, length, diameter and location of landmarks along the esophagus at different ages. It discusses the layers of the muscular coat, sphincters at the upper and lower ends, blood supply, lymphatic and nerve supply. Development, variations and imaging modalities for evaluating the esophagus are also summarized.
1. The document describes the male and female urethra, including their length, course, and functions. The male urethra is longer at 18-20 cm and curved, while the female urethra is shorter at 4 cm and nearly straight.
2. Key differences between the male and female urethra are outlined, such as the male urethra serving the dual functions of urination and ejaculation, while the female only functions for urination.
3. Common conditions like urethritis that can affect both the male and female urethra are mentioned.
The peritoneum is a serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers most intra-abdominal organs. Structures within this space are intraperitoneal, while those behind it are retroperitoneal. Diseases of the peritoneum and retroperitoneum include peritonitis, which is inflammation often due to infection; primary peritoneal carcinoma, which is cancer of the peritoneum cells; and retroperitoneal fibrosis, an uncommon fibrotic reaction in the retroperitoneum that can cause ureteral obstruction. Peritoneal dialysis is also discussed as a treatment where fluid is introduced and removed from the peritoneal cavity to remove waste.
The heart develops from cardiogenic mesoderm and forms endothelial heart tubes that fuse to create a single heart tube located within the pericardial cavity. The heart tube undergoes looping to form the basic chambers and portions. Septae then develop to divide the heart into four chambers - the interatrial septum divides the atria while the interventricular and aorticopulmonary septa divide the ventricles. Various congenital malformations can occur if septation is incomplete or unequal. The great arteries also septate during development.
1. The urinary and genital systems develop from a common intermediate mesoderm and initially share a common cavity called the cloaca.
2. The kidneys develop through three successive stages - the pronephros, mesonephros, and metanephros - with the metanephros forming the permanent kidneys.
3. The ureters develop from the mesonephric ducts and later join the bladder, which develops from the urogenital sinus. The bladder remains connected to the umbilicus by the urachus in early development.
The liver and gallbladder develop from the foregut endoderm. An outgrowth called the hepatic diverticulum or liver bud appears at the junction of the foregut and midgut during the third week of development. It penetrates the septum transversum and divides into right and left lobes which receive hematopoietic cells and connective tissue from the septum. Meanwhile, the bile duct and gallbladder form. Initially the bile duct opens into the duodenum but later rotates to open dorsally due to duodenal rotation. The liver performs hematopoiesis and bile production in the fetus. Anomalies can include duplication or absence of the gallbladder and abnormalities of the bile duct
The document discusses the anatomy and clinical features of the anal canal and hemorrhoids. Key points include:
- The anal canal is 4 cm long and is lined by different types of epithelium above and below the pectinate line.
- Hemorrhoids are varicosities of the superior rectal veins that can be internal or external. They cause symptoms like bleeding with defecation and prolapse.
- Treatment depends on the grade of hemorrhoids and may include conservative measures, injections, banding, or surgery for more severe cases.
The document provides detailed information on the anatomy and physiology of the esophagus. It describes the extension, length, diameter and location of landmarks along the esophagus at different ages. It discusses the layers of the muscular coat, sphincters at the upper and lower ends, blood supply, lymphatic and nerve supply. Development, variations and imaging modalities for evaluating the esophagus are also summarized.
1. The document describes the male and female urethra, including their length, course, and functions. The male urethra is longer at 18-20 cm and curved, while the female urethra is shorter at 4 cm and nearly straight.
2. Key differences between the male and female urethra are outlined, such as the male urethra serving the dual functions of urination and ejaculation, while the female only functions for urination.
3. Common conditions like urethritis that can affect both the male and female urethra are mentioned.
The peritoneum is a serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers most intra-abdominal organs. Structures within this space are intraperitoneal, while those behind it are retroperitoneal. Diseases of the peritoneum and retroperitoneum include peritonitis, which is inflammation often due to infection; primary peritoneal carcinoma, which is cancer of the peritoneum cells; and retroperitoneal fibrosis, an uncommon fibrotic reaction in the retroperitoneum that can cause ureteral obstruction. Peritoneal dialysis is also discussed as a treatment where fluid is introduced and removed from the peritoneal cavity to remove waste.
The heart develops from cardiogenic mesoderm and forms endothelial heart tubes that fuse to create a single heart tube located within the pericardial cavity. The heart tube undergoes looping to form the basic chambers and portions. Septae then develop to divide the heart into four chambers - the interatrial septum divides the atria while the interventricular and aorticopulmonary septa divide the ventricles. Various congenital malformations can occur if septation is incomplete or unequal. The great arteries also septate during development.
1. The urinary and genital systems develop from a common intermediate mesoderm and initially share a common cavity called the cloaca.
2. The kidneys develop through three successive stages - the pronephros, mesonephros, and metanephros - with the metanephros forming the permanent kidneys.
3. The ureters develop from the mesonephric ducts and later join the bladder, which develops from the urogenital sinus. The bladder remains connected to the umbilicus by the urachus in early development.
The liver and gallbladder develop from the foregut endoderm. An outgrowth called the hepatic diverticulum or liver bud appears at the junction of the foregut and midgut during the third week of development. It penetrates the septum transversum and divides into right and left lobes which receive hematopoietic cells and connective tissue from the septum. Meanwhile, the bile duct and gallbladder form. Initially the bile duct opens into the duodenum but later rotates to open dorsally due to duodenal rotation. The liver performs hematopoiesis and bile production in the fetus. Anomalies can include duplication or absence of the gallbladder and abnormalities of the bile duct
small intestine. parts . jujenum, ilieum, Malt, difference between jejunum and ilieum, mesentry, mesocolon, blood supply of small intetsine, arterial arcades, vesa recta, superior mesenteric vessles, meckels diverticulum,
Dr. Prabin Kumar Bam, MBBS
Anatomy of urinary bladder, introduction, gross features, histology, relations, interior of the bladder, trigone of bladder, uvula vesicae, ligaments of urinary bladder, histology of urinary bladder,
Prabin Kumar Bam
The caecum is a blind pouch located in the right lower abdomen that connects the ileum to the ascending colon. It stores semi-liquid digestive material and helps absorb fluids and electrolytes. The appendix attaches to its back surface. Blood supply comes from the ileocolic artery. Lymph drains to the ileocolic lymph nodes. Diseases that can affect the caecum include volvulus, intussusception, and diverticulitis.
The document summarizes the anatomy and embryology of the peritoneum. It is a serous membrane that lines the abdominal wall and covers abdominal organs. It consists of two layers - the parietal peritoneum lining the abdominal wall and visceral peritoneum covering organs. Between these layers is a thin film of serous fluid. The peritoneum divides the abdominal cavity into compartments using ligaments, mesentery and omentum. Key spaces include the lesser and greater sac, supramesocolic and inframesocolic spaces, and pelvic spaces. The document describes the embryological development and contents of various peritoneal reflections and ligaments.
The duodenum has 4 parts: superior, descending, horizontal, and ascending. The superior part is the most mobile and begins at the pylorus. The descending part is retroperitoneal and passes behind the head of the pancreas. The horizontal part crosses behind blood vessels. The ascending part meets the jejunum. The duodenum has relationships with nearby organs and vessels. It receives blood supply from the celiac trunk and superior mesenteric artery. The duodenum is susceptible to ulcers and trauma due to its fixed retroperitoneal position.
The spleen is a hematopoietic organ located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen. It filters blood and fights infections. The spleen develops from mesenchymal cells in the dorsal mesogastrium and has dimensions of approximately 12x7x3 cm and a weight of 150 grams in adults. It receives a blood supply from the splenic artery and drains into the portal vein system. The spleen can be surgically removed (splenectomy) in cases of trauma or certain blood disorders.
The document discusses the portal circulation system and portal hypertension. The portal vein is formed by the union of the superior mesenteric vein and splenic vein. It carries deoxygenated blood from the digestive organs to the liver. Five sites in the body allow blood to flow between the portal and systemic circulation systems. Portal hypertension occurs when increased blood pressure in the portal vein is caused by liver cirrhosis or thrombosis. Consequences of portal hypertension include esophageal and hemorrhoidal varices, caput medusae, ascites, and splenomegaly. Treatment options consist of band ligation, sclerotherapy, portosystemic shunts, and TIPSS procedures.
The fibrous skeleton of the heart:
1. Lies between the atria and ventricles.
2. Is composed of dense connective tissue that forms fibrous rings around the four heart valves.
3. Acts as an electrical insulator to prevent direct spread of electrical impulses from the atria to the ventricles, ensuring impulses pass through the bundle of His for coordinated ventricular contraction.
The peritoneum is a serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers abdominal organs. It consists of a parietal layer lining the abdominal wall and a visceral layer covering the organs. The potential space between these layers, called the peritoneal cavity, contains a thin film of fluid. The peritoneal cavity is divided into the greater and lesser sacs. The peritoneum has several functions including suspending organs, fixing some organs in place, storing fat, and secreting fluid to allow organ movement. It develops from lateral plate mesoderm and is innervated by thoracic and lumbar nerves. Clinical applications of the peritoneum include peritonitis, ascites, peritoneal dialysis, and internal
The spleen is a wedge-shaped, highly vascular organ located in the left hypochondrium. It filters blood and plays an important role in immunity. The spleen lies obliquely along the 10th rib at a 45 degree angle. It has two surfaces - a diaphragmatic surface and a concave, irregular visceral surface with impressions for adjacent organs. The splenic artery supplies the spleen and the splenic vein drains into the portal vein. The spleen filters blood, removes old red blood cells, and plays a role in immune responses through lymphocyte activation and plasma cell production.
This document discusses various gastrointestinal conditions including intussusception where one segment of bowel slides into another, cecal volvulus where the cecum twists on its mesentery, and errors in gut rotation which can cause pain in the left iliac fossa, umbilical region, or sub-hepatic region. It also mentions the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system involvement with gastrointestinal issues and appendicitis.
1) The rectum is the lower dilated part of the large gut located in the pelvic cavity. It is 12 cm long and has both anterior-posterior and lateral curvatures.
2) The anal canal is the terminal part of the alimentary tube located below the rectum. It is lined by different types of epithelium in its upper, intermediate, and lower areas.
3) Both structures have layers including mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. They receive blood supply from superior, middle, and inferior rectal arteries and drain into portal and systemic veins.
The abdominal aorta originates at the T12 vertebrae and runs downward in front of the lumbar vertebrae, terminating at the L4 vertebrae by dividing into the common iliac arteries. It gives off several unpaired branches including the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and inferior mesenteric artery. It also provides paired arteries such as the inferior phrenic, suprarenal, renal, gonadal, lumbar, and common iliac arteries that supply the abdominal organs and structures.
The spleen is located in the upper left abdomen between the stomach and diaphragm. It is roughly 9-14 cm long and filters old blood cells from the bloodstream. The spleen receives blood from the splenic artery and drains into the splenic vein which joins the portal vein. It contains red pulp which filters blood and white pulp containing lymphatic tissue. The spleen plays an important role in the immune system and filtering blood.
-Anatomical description of duodenum.
-Physiological functions of duodenum.
-Histology of duodenum.
-Duodenum blood supply and its innervation.
-Some disease and disorders that affect duodenum and its function.
The document summarizes the branches of the abdominal aorta. It describes the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and inferior mesenteric artery as the three anterior branches that arise from the abdominal aorta and supply the gastrointestinal viscera. The celiac trunk divides into the left gastric artery, splenic artery, and common hepatic artery. The superior mesenteric artery has five branches including the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery and jejunal/ileal arteries. The inferior mesenteric artery has three branches including the left colic artery and sigmoid arteries.
The duodenum is the shortest and widest part of the small intestine. It is C-shaped and passes behind the pancreas and liver before joining the jejunum. The duodenum has four parts that have different peritoneal relations and visceral connections. It receives blood supply from the pancreaticoduodenal arteries and innervation from the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Common clinical issues involving the duodenum include ulcers, diverticula, obstructions, and inflammation.
This document discusses the development of several organ systems, including:
- The liver, pancreas, spleen, and respiratory system develop from the endoderm and mesoderm. The liver forms from the hepatic bud, while the pancreas forms from dorsal and ventral buds. The spleen forms from mesoderm in the dorsal mesogastrium.
- The respiratory system develops from a median diverticulum of the foregut that divides into right and left lung buds. The larynx and trachea develop from the cranial part of the diverticulum. The lung buds undergo repeated division to form the bronchial tree and lungs.
- The peritoneal, pericardial, and pleural
The ureter is a narrow, thick-walled, muscular tube that conveys urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder. Peristaltic contractions of the smooth muscle in the ureter wall propel urine downward. The ureter has three layers of smooth muscle in the lower third and two layers in the upper two-thirds. It courses down the posterior abdominal wall and enters the pelvis, where it crosses the common iliac artery. In the pelvis, it travels laterally along the sciatic notch before entering the bladder obliquely. The ureter has several sites of anatomical narrowing where stones are prone to lodge, including at the pelvic brim and ure
The liver is the largest gland in the body located under the right rib cage. It is divided into four lobes and has two surfaces - a diaphragmatic surface and a visceral surface. The porta hepatis contains the hepatic artery, portal vein and hepatic ducts. Blood flows into the liver through the hepatic artery and portal vein and exits through the hepatic veins. The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver. The biliary system consists of the hepatic ducts, cystic duct, common hepatic duct, gallbladder and common bile duct which empties into the duodenum.
The liver, gallbladder, and bile ducts make up the hepatobiliary system. The liver is the largest organ located in the right upper abdomen. It has two surfaces and receives 80% of its blood supply from the portal vein. The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile before it is released into the small intestine. Bile ducts drain bile from the liver and gallbladder and include the right and left hepatic ducts which join to form the common hepatic duct and eventually the common bile duct. Variations can occur in the anatomy of these structures. Ultrasound is useful for evaluating the normal anatomy and identifying any abnormalities.
small intestine. parts . jujenum, ilieum, Malt, difference between jejunum and ilieum, mesentry, mesocolon, blood supply of small intetsine, arterial arcades, vesa recta, superior mesenteric vessles, meckels diverticulum,
Dr. Prabin Kumar Bam, MBBS
Anatomy of urinary bladder, introduction, gross features, histology, relations, interior of the bladder, trigone of bladder, uvula vesicae, ligaments of urinary bladder, histology of urinary bladder,
Prabin Kumar Bam
The caecum is a blind pouch located in the right lower abdomen that connects the ileum to the ascending colon. It stores semi-liquid digestive material and helps absorb fluids and electrolytes. The appendix attaches to its back surface. Blood supply comes from the ileocolic artery. Lymph drains to the ileocolic lymph nodes. Diseases that can affect the caecum include volvulus, intussusception, and diverticulitis.
The document summarizes the anatomy and embryology of the peritoneum. It is a serous membrane that lines the abdominal wall and covers abdominal organs. It consists of two layers - the parietal peritoneum lining the abdominal wall and visceral peritoneum covering organs. Between these layers is a thin film of serous fluid. The peritoneum divides the abdominal cavity into compartments using ligaments, mesentery and omentum. Key spaces include the lesser and greater sac, supramesocolic and inframesocolic spaces, and pelvic spaces. The document describes the embryological development and contents of various peritoneal reflections and ligaments.
The duodenum has 4 parts: superior, descending, horizontal, and ascending. The superior part is the most mobile and begins at the pylorus. The descending part is retroperitoneal and passes behind the head of the pancreas. The horizontal part crosses behind blood vessels. The ascending part meets the jejunum. The duodenum has relationships with nearby organs and vessels. It receives blood supply from the celiac trunk and superior mesenteric artery. The duodenum is susceptible to ulcers and trauma due to its fixed retroperitoneal position.
The spleen is a hematopoietic organ located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen. It filters blood and fights infections. The spleen develops from mesenchymal cells in the dorsal mesogastrium and has dimensions of approximately 12x7x3 cm and a weight of 150 grams in adults. It receives a blood supply from the splenic artery and drains into the portal vein system. The spleen can be surgically removed (splenectomy) in cases of trauma or certain blood disorders.
The document discusses the portal circulation system and portal hypertension. The portal vein is formed by the union of the superior mesenteric vein and splenic vein. It carries deoxygenated blood from the digestive organs to the liver. Five sites in the body allow blood to flow between the portal and systemic circulation systems. Portal hypertension occurs when increased blood pressure in the portal vein is caused by liver cirrhosis or thrombosis. Consequences of portal hypertension include esophageal and hemorrhoidal varices, caput medusae, ascites, and splenomegaly. Treatment options consist of band ligation, sclerotherapy, portosystemic shunts, and TIPSS procedures.
The fibrous skeleton of the heart:
1. Lies between the atria and ventricles.
2. Is composed of dense connective tissue that forms fibrous rings around the four heart valves.
3. Acts as an electrical insulator to prevent direct spread of electrical impulses from the atria to the ventricles, ensuring impulses pass through the bundle of His for coordinated ventricular contraction.
The peritoneum is a serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers abdominal organs. It consists of a parietal layer lining the abdominal wall and a visceral layer covering the organs. The potential space between these layers, called the peritoneal cavity, contains a thin film of fluid. The peritoneal cavity is divided into the greater and lesser sacs. The peritoneum has several functions including suspending organs, fixing some organs in place, storing fat, and secreting fluid to allow organ movement. It develops from lateral plate mesoderm and is innervated by thoracic and lumbar nerves. Clinical applications of the peritoneum include peritonitis, ascites, peritoneal dialysis, and internal
The spleen is a wedge-shaped, highly vascular organ located in the left hypochondrium. It filters blood and plays an important role in immunity. The spleen lies obliquely along the 10th rib at a 45 degree angle. It has two surfaces - a diaphragmatic surface and a concave, irregular visceral surface with impressions for adjacent organs. The splenic artery supplies the spleen and the splenic vein drains into the portal vein. The spleen filters blood, removes old red blood cells, and plays a role in immune responses through lymphocyte activation and plasma cell production.
This document discusses various gastrointestinal conditions including intussusception where one segment of bowel slides into another, cecal volvulus where the cecum twists on its mesentery, and errors in gut rotation which can cause pain in the left iliac fossa, umbilical region, or sub-hepatic region. It also mentions the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system involvement with gastrointestinal issues and appendicitis.
1) The rectum is the lower dilated part of the large gut located in the pelvic cavity. It is 12 cm long and has both anterior-posterior and lateral curvatures.
2) The anal canal is the terminal part of the alimentary tube located below the rectum. It is lined by different types of epithelium in its upper, intermediate, and lower areas.
3) Both structures have layers including mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. They receive blood supply from superior, middle, and inferior rectal arteries and drain into portal and systemic veins.
The abdominal aorta originates at the T12 vertebrae and runs downward in front of the lumbar vertebrae, terminating at the L4 vertebrae by dividing into the common iliac arteries. It gives off several unpaired branches including the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and inferior mesenteric artery. It also provides paired arteries such as the inferior phrenic, suprarenal, renal, gonadal, lumbar, and common iliac arteries that supply the abdominal organs and structures.
The spleen is located in the upper left abdomen between the stomach and diaphragm. It is roughly 9-14 cm long and filters old blood cells from the bloodstream. The spleen receives blood from the splenic artery and drains into the splenic vein which joins the portal vein. It contains red pulp which filters blood and white pulp containing lymphatic tissue. The spleen plays an important role in the immune system and filtering blood.
-Anatomical description of duodenum.
-Physiological functions of duodenum.
-Histology of duodenum.
-Duodenum blood supply and its innervation.
-Some disease and disorders that affect duodenum and its function.
The document summarizes the branches of the abdominal aorta. It describes the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and inferior mesenteric artery as the three anterior branches that arise from the abdominal aorta and supply the gastrointestinal viscera. The celiac trunk divides into the left gastric artery, splenic artery, and common hepatic artery. The superior mesenteric artery has five branches including the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery and jejunal/ileal arteries. The inferior mesenteric artery has three branches including the left colic artery and sigmoid arteries.
The duodenum is the shortest and widest part of the small intestine. It is C-shaped and passes behind the pancreas and liver before joining the jejunum. The duodenum has four parts that have different peritoneal relations and visceral connections. It receives blood supply from the pancreaticoduodenal arteries and innervation from the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Common clinical issues involving the duodenum include ulcers, diverticula, obstructions, and inflammation.
This document discusses the development of several organ systems, including:
- The liver, pancreas, spleen, and respiratory system develop from the endoderm and mesoderm. The liver forms from the hepatic bud, while the pancreas forms from dorsal and ventral buds. The spleen forms from mesoderm in the dorsal mesogastrium.
- The respiratory system develops from a median diverticulum of the foregut that divides into right and left lung buds. The larynx and trachea develop from the cranial part of the diverticulum. The lung buds undergo repeated division to form the bronchial tree and lungs.
- The peritoneal, pericardial, and pleural
The ureter is a narrow, thick-walled, muscular tube that conveys urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder. Peristaltic contractions of the smooth muscle in the ureter wall propel urine downward. The ureter has three layers of smooth muscle in the lower third and two layers in the upper two-thirds. It courses down the posterior abdominal wall and enters the pelvis, where it crosses the common iliac artery. In the pelvis, it travels laterally along the sciatic notch before entering the bladder obliquely. The ureter has several sites of anatomical narrowing where stones are prone to lodge, including at the pelvic brim and ure
The liver is the largest gland in the body located under the right rib cage. It is divided into four lobes and has two surfaces - a diaphragmatic surface and a visceral surface. The porta hepatis contains the hepatic artery, portal vein and hepatic ducts. Blood flows into the liver through the hepatic artery and portal vein and exits through the hepatic veins. The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver. The biliary system consists of the hepatic ducts, cystic duct, common hepatic duct, gallbladder and common bile duct which empties into the duodenum.
The liver, gallbladder, and bile ducts make up the hepatobiliary system. The liver is the largest organ located in the right upper abdomen. It has two surfaces and receives 80% of its blood supply from the portal vein. The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile before it is released into the small intestine. Bile ducts drain bile from the liver and gallbladder and include the right and left hepatic ducts which join to form the common hepatic duct and eventually the common bile duct. Variations can occur in the anatomy of these structures. Ultrasound is useful for evaluating the normal anatomy and identifying any abnormalities.
The document summarizes CT anatomy of the liver in 3 sentences:
The liver is the largest abdominal organ, surrounded by Glisson's capsule. It has five surfaces and is divided into four sectors by structures forming an "H" on its inferior surface. The liver has eight functionally independent segments based on its vascular inflow, outflow and biliary drainage.
Radiological anatomy of hepatobiliary systemPankaj Kaira
The document provides an overview of the radiological anatomy of the hepatobiliary system. In 3 sentences:
It describes the anatomy of the liver including its lobes, ligaments, blood supply from the hepatic artery and portal vein, and segmentation. The pancreas and biliary apparatus are also discussed, including the gallbladder, cystic duct, common hepatic duct, and common bile duct. Diagrams and images are included to illustrate the structures and their relationships.
C:\documents and settings\user\desktop\gastrointestinal 0406 liverpdfMBBS IMS MSU
This document provides an overview of the anatomy of the gastrointestinal system, with a focus on the liver, gallbladder, and biliary system. It describes the structure and connections of the liver, including its lobes, ligaments, and vascular supply. It then discusses the gallbladder, its attachment to the liver, blood supply, and structure. Finally, it details the biliary system, including the branching of the hepatic ducts, formation of the common bile duct, and termination of the bile and pancreatic ducts in the duodenum.
The document provides information on the structure and functions of the liver and pancreas. It discusses the liver's location, lobes, ligaments, vascular and biliary supply. The liver receives blood from the hepatic portal vein and hepatic arteries. It secretes bile into canaliculi between hepatocytes. The bile ducts drain into the right and left hepatic ducts. The pancreas is also mentioned. The peritoneum and its derivatives are briefly introduced.
The document provides detailed information on the anatomy of the liver based on CT imaging. It describes the liver's location, lobes and segments. It discusses the liver's vasculature including the hepatic artery, portal vein and hepatic veins. It also describes the bile ducts and variants. The document outlines the CT appearance of the liver in different phases following contrast administration and the technique for CT liver volumetry.
The document summarizes the gastrointestinal tract and specifically focuses on the esophagus and stomach. It notes that the GI tract is a continuous tube beginning at the mouth and ending at the anus. It then describes the esophagus' location and relations as it passes from the throat to the stomach. Finally, it outlines the stomach's location in the abdomen and describes its parts, blood supply, and nerve innervation.
The liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and spleen are described. The liver is the largest gland and has many functions including bile production, carbohydrate and fat metabolism, and vitamin processing. The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile from the liver. The pancreas produces enzymes and hormones to aid digestion. The spleen filters blood and stores blood cells. All four organs have specific locations, blood supply from the hepatic and splenic arteries, and drainage into the portal vein and lymphatics.
The liver is the largest solid organ located in the upper right abdomen. It performs hundreds of vital functions including removing toxins from the blood, maintaining blood sugar levels, and regulating blood clotting. The liver receives 20% of its blood supply from the hepatic artery and 80% from the portal vein. It is divided into four lobes and has five surfaces. The liver plays a crucial role in metabolism and detoxification.
Muscle is a specialized tissue which brings
xThe cells exhibit cross-striations under
functional unit of muscle fiber.
about movement by contraction.
xMuscle tissue is made up of cells called
myocytes. These usually appear as fibers
known as muscle fibers.
xEach muscle fiber is covered by a
membrane known as sarcolemma and a
cytoplasm known as sarcoplasm.
xCytoplasm of each muscle fiber contains
numerous longitudinal threadlike struc
tures called myofibrils, which are made
up of different types of muscle protein
(mainly actin and myosin).
xIt is also rich in mitochondria and
glycogen, which provide energy for it.
xNumerous mitochondria (sarcosomes)
and endoplasmic reticulum (sarcoplasmic
reticulum) are also seen.
Classification of Muscle
Tissue
Based on the appearance of contractile
cells, the muscle tissue is classified as the
following:
xSkeletal/striated/voluntary muscle/
striped muscle.
xCardiac/involuntary muscle.
xSmooth muscle/involuntary/visceral
muscle.
Skeletal Muscle
xSkeletal muscle is attached to bone and
is responsible for movement of axial and
light microscope; hence, it is called stri
ated muscle.
xSkeletal muscles have limited capacity of
regeneration.
Microscopic Structure (Longitudinal
Section) of Skeletal Muscle
xLongitudinal section of skeletal muscles
shows long unbranched cylindrical
muscle fibers running parallel to each
other (Figs.8.1 and 8.2).
xLength of muscle fiber is variable ranging
from few millimeter to many centimeter.
xEach muscle fiber shows multinucleated
flat oval nucleus located peripherally
underneath the sarcolemma.
xMultinucleated appearance of muscle
fiber is due to the fusion of multiple
myoblasts during the embryonic life.
xThe sarcoplasm contains numerous
myofibrils (Fig.8.3).
xUnder light microscope, myofibrils are
seen as dark and light bands.
xThe dark bands are A-bands (anisotropic
under polarized light) and light bands are
I-bands (isotropic under polarized light).
xStriated appearance is mainly due to the
regular arrangement of actin and myosin
myofilaments.
xThe middle of Aband has a light area
known as Hband.
xThe center of H-band has a dark line
known as M-line.
xThe center of I-band is bisected by Z-line.
xThe area between two Z-lines is called
sarcomere, which is the structural and
appendicular skeleton.
This document discusses liver anatomy, function tests, and imaging. It covers the embryological development of the liver, its lobes and ligament attachments. It describes the dual blood supply, biliary drainage system, and microscopic anatomy. Common liver function tests are outlined including those assessing synthesis, damage, and detoxification. Ultrasound imaging of the liver is also summarized, noting its advantages of being inexpensive and non-invasive but limitations in imaging certain areas.
1.Antomy and physiology of liver by worku.pptxGoldGetnet
The liver has complex anatomy and vasculature. It is divided into 4 lobes and 8 segments based on blood supply. The liver receives dual blood supply from the hepatic artery and portal vein. It has 3 major functions - metabolism, protein synthesis, and bile production. The bile duct drains bile from the liver into the small intestine.
The document provides an overview of the anatomy of the abdomen, including:
- The abdomen is divided into four quadrants and nine regions based on anatomical planes.
- Major organs in the abdominal cavity include the stomach, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, kidneys, small intestine and large intestine.
- The small intestine consists of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The large intestine consists of the cecum, colon (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid portions), rectum and anal canal.
- Other structures discussed include the peritoneum, muscles of the abdominal wall, and boundaries of the abdominal cavity.
The document summarizes the blood supply of the gastrointestinal tract in three parts:
1) The arterial supply comes from branches off the abdominal aorta including the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and inferior mesenteric artery.
2) Venous drainage occurs through the portal vein, which is formed by the superior mesenteric vein and splenic vein. It drains into the liver.
3) The hepatic portion describes the hepatic arteries, portal vein branches in the liver, hepatic lobules, and hepatic veins draining into the inferior vena cava.
Large intestine/Ulcerative colitis/colorectal carcinoma/polyp/FAP/HNPCCRajeevPandit10
The document provides an overview of the anatomy, embryology, physiology and functions of the large intestine. It describes how the large intestine develops from the midgut and hindgut during embryogenesis. Key points include that the large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes and hosts beneficial bacteria that produce short-chain fatty acids and vitamins. Motility and defecation involve coordinated contractions and relaxation of the colon and anal sphincters.
The pancreas lies transversely in the retroperitoneum. It has a head, neck, body, and tail. The pancreatic duct drains into the common bile duct to form the ampulla of Vater. The pancreas receives its blood supply from branches of the splenic artery and superior mesenteric artery. It has both exocrine and endocrine functions. There are several types of pancreatic resection including pancreaticoduodenectomy, distal pancreatectomy, and total pancreatectomy. Resection is indicated for tumors while reconstruction aims to restore gastrointestinal continuity.
This document discusses abdominal ultrasound imaging of the liver. It describes liver anatomy including the right, left, and caudate lobes. It discusses Couinaud hepatic segmentation and identifies the 8 segments. It provides details on patient preparation, transducer selection, and normal ultrasound findings of the liver including size, contour, echogenicity, vasculature, and biliary tree. Key preparation steps include a 6 hour fast to reduce bowel gas. A curvilinear transducer between 2-7 MHz is typically used. A normal liver has homogeneous parenchyma under 20cm in size with smooth contour, similar echogenicity to kidneys, and visualization of the portal and hepatic vasculature and biliary tree.
The document provides an overview of the anatomy of the genitourinary system, including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and reproductive organs. It describes the location and internal structure of the kidneys and notes their blood supply from the renal arteries. It then discusses the ureters, which drain urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Finally, it summarizes the anatomy of the bladder and urethra in both males and females.
Osteoporosis - Definition , Evaluation and Management .pdfJim Jacob Roy
Osteoporosis is an increasing cause of morbidity among the elderly.
In this document , a brief outline of osteoporosis is given , including the risk factors of osteoporosis fractures , the indications for testing bone mineral density and the management of osteoporosis
Histololgy of Female Reproductive System.pptxAyeshaZaid1
Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
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There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
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3. CHARACTERISTICS OF NORMAL LIVER
• Liver length measured in the midclavicular line range from 13 to
17 cm (15.5 cm is used most frequently).
• The mean longitudinal diameter is 10.5 cm, with standard
deviation (SD) of 1.5 cm, and the mean midclavicular
anteroposterior diameter is 8.1 cm (SD 1.9 cm)
• Echogenicity : ≥Right kidney, ≤pancreas, <spleen
• Parenchyma Homogeneous
• Surface Smooth
4. LIVER SURFACES
• Divided into 2 anatomical regions:
1.Diaphragmatic surface:
Smooth and dome-shaped surface
Anterior part of liver
Inferior to diaphragm
Separated from diaphragm by
subphrenic recess and from kidney
and suprarenal glands by
hepatorenal recess
Covered by peritoneum except
bare area
5. 2. Visceral surface
Covered by visceral
peritoneum except porta
hepatis and gall bladder bed.
The visceral surface is related to:
Right side of the stomach i.e.
gastric and pyloric areas
Superior part of the
duodenum i.e. duodenal
area
Lesser omentum
Gall bladder
Right colic flexor
and right transverse area ;
colic area
Right kidney and suprarenal
gland; Renal area
6. OLD LOBAR ANATOMY
• Traditional anatomic teaching divides the liver into a large
right and a small left lobe.
• They are divided anteriorly by the attachment for the
falciform ligament, and on the visceral surface by the
grooves for the ligamenta teres and venosum.
• Two further lobes are described:
a) caudate lobe posteriorly between the IVC and the fissure
for the ligamentum venosum, and the
b) quadrate lobe anteroinferiorly between the gallbladder bed
and the fissure for the ligamentum teres.
• These lobes are part of the conventional right lobe.
7. Size of caudate lobe :
sagittal plane : 45±9 mm
AP diameter : 24±6 cm
8. LOBES
• Couinaud divided the liver into
a functional left and right lobe
by a main portal scissurae
containing the middle hepatic
vein.
• This is known as CANTLIE'S
LINE.
• Cantlie's line runs from the
middle of the gallbladder fossa
anteriorly to the inferior vena
cava posteriorly.
9. COUINAUD’S SEGMENTS
• 8 segments
• Have their own blood
supply lymphatics and
billiary drainage.
• Right,middle and left
hepatic veins divide liver
longitudinally into 4
segments.
• Each of these segments is
further divided transversly
by an imaginary plane
passing thorugh right and
left main portal pedicles.
IVC
PV
10.
11. COUINAUD TRADITIONAL
Segment I Caudate lobe
Segment II Lateral segment left lobe (superior)
Segment III Lateral segment left lobe (inferior)
Segment IV a
Segment IV b
Medial superior segment left lobe
Medial inferior segment left lobe
Segment V Anterior segment right lobe (inferior)
Segment VI Posterior segment right lobe (inferior)
Segment VII Posterior segment right lobe (superior)
Segment VIII Anterior segment right lobe (superior)
12. • Right hepatic vein divides the right lobe into anterior and
posterior segments.
• Middle hepatic vein divides the liver into right and left lobes
(or right and left hemiliver). This plane runs from the inferior
vena cava to the gallbladder fossa.
• Left hepatic vein divides the left lobe into a medial and lateral
part.
• Portal vein divides the liver into upper and lower segments.
13. Ligaments
• The liver is covered by a thin connective tissue layer called
Glisson’s capsule.
• At the porta hepatis, the main portal vein, the proper hepatic
artery, and the common bile duct are contained within
investing peritoneal folds known as the hepatoduodenal
ligament .
• The falciform ligament conducts the umbilical vein to the liver
during fetal development. After birth, the umbilical vein
atrophies, forming the ligamentum teres . As it reaches the
liver, the leaves of the falciform ligament separate. The right
layer forms the upper layer of the coronary ligament; the left
layer forms the upper layer of the left triangular ligament
14. • The most lateral portion of the coronary ligament is known as
the right triangular ligament .
• The peritoneal layers that form the coronary ligament are
widely separated, leaving an area of the liver not covered by
peritoneum. This posterosuperior region is known as the bare
area of the liver.
• The ligamentum venosum carries the obliterated ductus
venosus, which until birth shunts blood from the umbilical
vein to the IVC.
16. The arterial supply of the liver
• The hepatic artery
(diameter 5mm) one of the
three branches of the
coeliac trunk in the free
edge of the lesser
omentum, anterior to the
portal vein and medial to
the bile duct.
• It divides into approximately
equal-sized right and left
hepatic arteries before
entering the liver at the
porta hepatis.
17. Portal venous drainage
• The portal system supplies 80% of blood in liver.
• Diameter of portal vein is <13mm
• It normally forms posterior to the neck of the pancreas by the
union of the superior mesenteric vein (SMV) and the splenic
vein at the level of the L1/L2 disc space.
• It runs posterior to the bile duct and the hepatic artery to the
porta hepatis.
• At the porta it divides into right and left branches to supply the
right and left lobes.
19. Hepatic veins
• The portal vein is 7 to 10 cm long and 0.8 to 1.4 cm in diameter
• Diameter of IVC is <28mm.
• The liver is drained by hepatic veins, which drain upwards and
backwards to the IVC without an extrahepatic course.
• The distribution of the hepatic veins right, middle and left
hepatic veins drain corresponding thirds of the liver.
• A lower group of small veins drain directly to the IVC from the
lower parts of the right and caudate lobes.
• Hepatic veins have no valves.
20. Lymphatic drainage of the liver
• Lymphatics accompany the portal vessels and ducts draining to
nodes in the porta hepatis, to hepatic nodes.
• From here lymph drains via retropyloric nodes to the coeliac
nodes and thence to the cisterna chyli.
• The anterior parts of the liver drain to the deep lymphatics.
• The posterior part drain toward the bare area of the liver.
• These lymphatics pass through the diaphragm with the IVC and
drain into posterior mediastinal lymph nodes.
22. USG
• Initial imaging modality for suspected liver
pathology.
• Position-Supine or left decubitus
• Transducer-convex(3.5-5Mhz)
• Approach-Subcostal
Xiphisternal
Intercostal
23. RL SEP FROM LL BY INTERLOBAR
FISSURE
CAUDATE LOBE SAGG VEIW-ARROWS
FISSURE FOR LIG VENOSUM
24. Sagittal image of porta hepatis
showing CBD & main portal vein
enclosed in the hepatoduodenal
ligament
Hepatic venous anatomy. The
three hepatic veins—right (RHV),
middle (MHV), and left (LHV)
25.
26. CT SCAN
Normal liver is homogenous and has density
higher than spleen .
• Normal liver parenchyma – 40-80 HU
• 8-10 HU greater than spleen
33. Anatomy of Gallbladder
• pear-shaped sac, about 7–10 cm long and 3cm in diameter
• Diameter of wall of gall bladder is <3mm
• 30-50 ml capacity
• lying on the visceral surface of the right lobe of the liver in a
fossa between the right and quadrate lobes Divided into four
anatomic areas:
– fundus
– the corpus (body)
– the infundibulum
– the neck
34. The relations of the gallbladder
• Anterosuperiorly:
— The gallbladder bed of the liver
— The fundus is related to the anterior abdominal wall at the
point where the lateral edge of the right rectus muscle meets the
ninth costal cartilage; and
• Posteroinferiorly:
— The neck: lesser omentum
— The body: first part of the duodenum
— The fundus: transverse colon.
37. • Blood supply :
– cystic artery
• usually a branch of the right hepatic artery (>90% of the
time).
• always is found within the hepatocystic triangle, the area
bound by the cystic duct, common hepatic duct, and the
liver margin (triangle of Calot).
• When the cystic artery reaches the neck of the
gallbladder, it divides into anterior and posterior divisions.
39. • Venous drainage:
– either through:
• small veins that enter directly into the liver
• large cystic vein that carries blood back to the portal vein
(rarely)
• lymphatic drainage
– nodes at the neck of the gallbladder.
– Frequently, a visible lymph node overlies the insertion of the
cystic artery into the gallbladder wall.
• Nerve supply:
– vagus nerve
– sympathetic branches that pass through the celiac plexus
40. Cystic duct
• 3-4 cm long
• Runs downwards,backwards and to the left
• Ends by joining CHD at an acute angle to
become CBD.
• Mucous membrane of the cystic duct forms a
series of crescentic folds arranged spirally-
spiral valve of Heister.
41. Bile ducts
Intrahepatic
• Normal diameter upto 3mm
each of bile duct
• fuse close to the porta
hepatis into right and left
hepatic ducts.
Extrahepatic
• right and left hepatic ducts
join to form the common
hepatic duct
• cystic duct
• common bile duct or
choledochus.
• The common bile duct enters
the second portion of the
duodenum through a muscular
structure, the sphincter of
Oddi
43. • The common hepatic duct is joined
with the cystic duct to form the
common bile duct
• 8cm in length and
• approximately 7mm in diameter
• lies in :
• front of the portal vein
• to the right of the hepatic
artery.
common hepatic duct
44. • about 7 to 11 cm in length
• 5 to 10 mm in diameter.
• supraduodenal
• retroduodenal
• infraduodenal
• intraduodenal
• Runs obliquely downward within the
wall of the duodenum for 1 to 2 cm
before opening on a papilla of
mucous membrane (ampulla of
Vater).
Common bile duct
45. Plain Radiograph
• Plain radiograph is usually taken as part of
sequence of investigation of abdominal pain.
• It gives information about radiopaque stones,
mural calcification, mural gas and gas in biliary
tree.
49. Anatomy of pancreas
• A gland with both exocrine and endocrine functions.
• Parts of pancreas: head, uncinate process, neck, body and tail
• 15-25 cm long.
• Size of the head of the pancreas ranged from 6 to 28 mm
(17.7±4.2mm)
• Body size from 4-23 mm
• Tail size 5-28 mm
• Weighs 60-100 g
• Location: retro-peritoneal (tail being intraperitoneal) , 2nd
lumbar vertebral level
• Extends in an oblique, transverse position
• It is iso or hyperchoic compared to hepatic parenchyma
53. Venous Drainage:
Suprapancreatic PV
Retropancreatic PV
Splenic vein
Infrapancreatic SMV
• Ultimately, drains into portal vein
• Normal diameter of splenic vein is <10mm
Innervations:
• Sympathetic fibers (from the splanchnic nerves)
• Parasympathetic fibers (from the vagus)
54. Ducts of pancreas
• The pancreatic duct
begins in the tail of
pancreas.
• Joins CBD at the Ampulla
of Vater.
• It measures approximately
1.5 mm in the tail, 2 mm
in the body and 3 mm in
the head.
• Lesser duct (Santorini)
drains superior portion of
head and empties
separately into 2nd portion
of duodenum
55. Lymphatic drainage
• Has rich networks
that drain into 5
nodal groups:
1. Superior nodes
2. Anterior nodes
3. Inferior nodes
4. Posterior PD
nodes
5. Splenic nodes
56. Plain films of the abdomen
• The pancreas is not visible unless calcified
• When the pancreas is inflamed it may cause ileus
formation in the nearby duodenum and proximal jejunum,
which is visible on plain films.