These are the organic products of natural or synthetic origin which are basic in
nature & contain one or more than one nitrogen atoms, normally of heterocyclic nature &
possess specific physiological actions on human or animal body, when used in small quantites.
The term is derived from the word ‘alkali-like’ & hence they resemble some of characters
of naturally occuring amines.
The term is derived from the word ‘alkali-like’ & hence they resemble some of
characters of naturally occuring amines.
Alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure are also termed alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulfur and, more rarely, other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus.
Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. They can be purified from crude extracts of these organisms by acid-base extraction. Alkaloids have a wide range of pharmacological activities including antimalarial (e.g. quinine), antiasthma (e.g. ephedrine), anticancer (e.g. homoharringtonine),cholinomimetic (e.g. galantamine), vasodilatory (e.g. vincamine), antiarrhythmic (e.g. quinidine), analgesic (e.g. morphine),antibacterial (e.g. chelerythrine), and antihyperglycemic activities (e.g. piperine). Many have found use in traditional or modern medicine, or as starting points for drug discovery. Other alkaloids possess psychotropic (e.g. psilocin) and stimulant activities (e.g. cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, theobromine), and have been used in entheogenic rituals or as recreational drugs. Alkaloids can be toxic too (e.g. atropine, tubocurarine). Although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other animals, they almost uniformly evoke a bitter taste
This slide contains sources, collection process, constituents and uses of some important plants for making medicine containing anthraquinone glycosides like Senna, Cascara Sagrada, Aloe, Rhubarb, Chrysarobin.
Alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure are also termed alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulfur and, more rarely, other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus.
Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. They can be purified from crude extracts of these organisms by acid-base extraction. Alkaloids have a wide range of pharmacological activities including antimalarial (e.g. quinine), antiasthma (e.g. ephedrine), anticancer (e.g. homoharringtonine),cholinomimetic (e.g. galantamine), vasodilatory (e.g. vincamine), antiarrhythmic (e.g. quinidine), analgesic (e.g. morphine),antibacterial (e.g. chelerythrine), and antihyperglycemic activities (e.g. piperine). Many have found use in traditional or modern medicine, or as starting points for drug discovery. Other alkaloids possess psychotropic (e.g. psilocin) and stimulant activities (e.g. cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, theobromine), and have been used in entheogenic rituals or as recreational drugs. Alkaloids can be toxic too (e.g. atropine, tubocurarine). Although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other animals, they almost uniformly evoke a bitter taste
This slide contains sources, collection process, constituents and uses of some important plants for making medicine containing anthraquinone glycosides like Senna, Cascara Sagrada, Aloe, Rhubarb, Chrysarobin.
what is extraction, infusion, decoction, maceration, percolation, digestion, factors, procedure for infusion, procedure for decoction, procedure for maceration, factors for extraction
Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. These can be activated by enzyme hydrolysis, which causes the sugar part to be broken off, making the chemical available for use. Many such plant glycosides are used as medications. In animals and humans, poisons are often bound to sugar molecules as part of their elimination from the body.A glycoside is a molecule consisting of a sugar and a non-sugar group, called an aglycone. The sugar group is known as the glycone and can consist of a single sugar group or several sugar groups. The sugars is in its cyclic form and is covalently attached to the aglycon through the hydroxyl group of the hemiactal function.
There are many different kinds of aglycones. It can be a terpene, a flavonoid, a coumarin or practically any other natural occurring product (se figure 1)
The glycone can be attached to the aglycon in many different ways. The most common bridging atom is oxygen (O-glycoside), but it can also be sulphur (S-glycoside), nitrogen (N-glycoside) or carbon (C-glycoside). In general, one distinguishes between α-Glycosides and β-glycosides, depending on the configuration of the hemiactal hydroxyl group. The majority of the naturally occurring glycosides are β-glycosidesGenerally glycosides are more polar than the aglycones and as a result glycoside formation usually increases water solubility. This may allow the producing organism to transport and store the glycoside more efficiently
Many biologically active compounds are glycosides. The pharmacological effects are largely determined by the structure of the aglycone.
Glycosides comprise several important classes of compounds such as hormones, sweeteners, alkaloids, flavonoids and antibiotics
Factors affecting extraction, Pharmacognosy, crude drugs extraction factorsDivya Sree M S
Factors affecting extraction, Pharmacognosy, crude drugs extraction factors, Factors affecting choice of Extraction Process
Factors considered when selecting a solvent
1) BASED ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF NON SUGAR MOIETY
2) BASED ON TE NATURE OF SUGAR MOITY
3) BASED ON LINKAGE BETWEEN GLYCON AND AGLYCON PORTION
4) BASED ON THERAPEUTIC NATURE OF GLYCOSIDE
Describes in detail the complete biological source and synonyms of the plant Cinnamon. Gives important macroscopic characters and microscopic characters as seen in transverse and the lateral sections. Also gives important chemical constituents of the plant, its uses, difference between two species of Cinnamon: Cassia cinnamon and Ceylon cinnamon and some marketed pharmaceutical preparations of Ceylon cinnamon.
1. Definition, Classification, Properties and Qualitative Chemical tests of Alkaloids
2. Definition, Classification, Properties and Qualitative Chemical tests of Glycosides
3. Definition, Classification, Properties and Qualitative Chemical tests Flavonoids
4. Definition, Classification, Properties and Qualitative Chemical tests of Tannins
5. Definition, Classification, Properties and Qualitative Chemical tests of Volatile oils
6. Definition, Classification, Properties and Qualitative Chemical tests Resins
what is extraction, infusion, decoction, maceration, percolation, digestion, factors, procedure for infusion, procedure for decoction, procedure for maceration, factors for extraction
Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. These can be activated by enzyme hydrolysis, which causes the sugar part to be broken off, making the chemical available for use. Many such plant glycosides are used as medications. In animals and humans, poisons are often bound to sugar molecules as part of their elimination from the body.A glycoside is a molecule consisting of a sugar and a non-sugar group, called an aglycone. The sugar group is known as the glycone and can consist of a single sugar group or several sugar groups. The sugars is in its cyclic form and is covalently attached to the aglycon through the hydroxyl group of the hemiactal function.
There are many different kinds of aglycones. It can be a terpene, a flavonoid, a coumarin or practically any other natural occurring product (se figure 1)
The glycone can be attached to the aglycon in many different ways. The most common bridging atom is oxygen (O-glycoside), but it can also be sulphur (S-glycoside), nitrogen (N-glycoside) or carbon (C-glycoside). In general, one distinguishes between α-Glycosides and β-glycosides, depending on the configuration of the hemiactal hydroxyl group. The majority of the naturally occurring glycosides are β-glycosidesGenerally glycosides are more polar than the aglycones and as a result glycoside formation usually increases water solubility. This may allow the producing organism to transport and store the glycoside more efficiently
Many biologically active compounds are glycosides. The pharmacological effects are largely determined by the structure of the aglycone.
Glycosides comprise several important classes of compounds such as hormones, sweeteners, alkaloids, flavonoids and antibiotics
Factors affecting extraction, Pharmacognosy, crude drugs extraction factorsDivya Sree M S
Factors affecting extraction, Pharmacognosy, crude drugs extraction factors, Factors affecting choice of Extraction Process
Factors considered when selecting a solvent
1) BASED ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF NON SUGAR MOIETY
2) BASED ON TE NATURE OF SUGAR MOITY
3) BASED ON LINKAGE BETWEEN GLYCON AND AGLYCON PORTION
4) BASED ON THERAPEUTIC NATURE OF GLYCOSIDE
Describes in detail the complete biological source and synonyms of the plant Cinnamon. Gives important macroscopic characters and microscopic characters as seen in transverse and the lateral sections. Also gives important chemical constituents of the plant, its uses, difference between two species of Cinnamon: Cassia cinnamon and Ceylon cinnamon and some marketed pharmaceutical preparations of Ceylon cinnamon.
1. Definition, Classification, Properties and Qualitative Chemical tests of Alkaloids
2. Definition, Classification, Properties and Qualitative Chemical tests of Glycosides
3. Definition, Classification, Properties and Qualitative Chemical tests Flavonoids
4. Definition, Classification, Properties and Qualitative Chemical tests of Tannins
5. Definition, Classification, Properties and Qualitative Chemical tests of Volatile oils
6. Definition, Classification, Properties and Qualitative Chemical tests Resins
Introduction, classification, isolation, purification, biological activity of alkaloids, general methods of structural determination of alkaloids, structural elucidation of Morphine, Reserpine and Emetine
This presentation is all about Alkaloids which are organic compounds. Their occurence, where they found in nature. Various physical and chemical properties of alkaloids. Why they are basic in nature, How they are classified and several tests for alkaloids. The extraction process used for alkaloids extraction. Finally few alkaloids with their medicinal uses,structures and few hetreocyclic compounds present in alkaloids.
Alkaloids are basic - they form water soluble salts. Most alkaloids are well-defined crystalline substances which unite with acids to form salts. In plants, they may exist
in the free state,
as salts or
as N-oxides.
Alkaloids: Introduction, Property and classification OP VERMA
Alkaloids are major secondary metabolites reported in higher plants. In this PPT I have covered Introduction, Property, Clarification and identification tests.
Alkaloids are nitrogenous compounds of low molecular weight. They are mainly produced by plants and animals for defense. Examples of alkaloids include morphine, codeine, coniine, quinine, scopolamine, hyoscamine, atropine, caffeine, sangunarine, berberine, etc.
anthraquinone, coumarin, cyanogens (cyanohydrin), flavonoids, glucosinolates (or thioglycosides), phenols, steroidal, terpenoids, and saponins.
A type of chemical found in plants and in certain foods, such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, wine, and tea.
Herbal drugs / herbal medicines include
herbs, herbal materials, herbal preparations and
finished herbal products, that contain as active ingredients, part of plants, or other plant materials, or combinations.
Herbal medicines comprise of therapies employing plant based products.
It is an integral part of Ayurveda and some indigenous medical systems.
Herbal drugs are becoming more popular in the modern world for their application to cure variety of diseases with less toxic effects and better therapeutic effects
OSI Reference Model - internationally standardised network architecture.
OSI = Open Systems Interconnection: deals with open systems, i.e.systems open for communications with other systems.
Specified in ISO 7498.
Model has 7 layers.
Supercomputers...are used to process very large amounts of information including processing information to predict hurricanes, satellite images and navigation, and process military war scenarios
Mainframes...are used by government and businesses to process very large amounts of information.
Mini-Computers...are similar to mainframes...they are used by business and government to process large amounts of information.
Personal Computers (PC
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
They were often enormous and taking up entire room.
First generation computers relied on machine language.
They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices.
Chromatography is an analytical method in which compounds are physically separated and measured.
The main purpose of chromatography is to separate and quantify the target sample.
The Chromatography technique used to separate a mixture of compounds in pharmaceutical sciences , analytical analytical Chemistry with the purpose of identifying, quantifying and purifying the individual components of the mixture.
The Hedgehog pathway was discovered in fruit fly (Drosophila) and is conserved in vertebrates (including humans)
The Hedgehog pathway is involved in cell growth and differentiation to control organ formation during embryonic development.
Hedgehog signalling regulates embryonic development, ensuring that tissues reach their correct size and location, maintaining tissue polarity and cellular content.
In the skin, the Hedgehog pathway is critical for regulating hair follicle and sebaceous gland development.
Germline mutations in components of the Hedgehog signalling pathway results in a number of developmental abnormalities.
Hedgehog signalling normally remains inactive in most adult tissues
Oxygen is highly reactive atom that is capable of becoming part
of potentially damaging molecule commonly called “free radical.”
Free radicals are capable of attacking cells of the body, causing
them to lose their structure and function.
Free radicals have been implicated in the pathogenesis of at
least 50 diseases.
Free radial formation is controlled naturally by various compounds
known as antioxidants.
It is when the ability of antioxidant is limited that this damage can
become cumulative and debilitating.
Following criteria should be considered while selecting an antioxidant.
It should be able to produce desire redox reaction.
It should be physiologically and chemically compatible.
It should be physiologically inert.
It should be non-toxic both in the reduced and oxidized forms.
It should be effective in low concentration.
It should provide prolonged stability to the formulation.
These are the substances which are added in the formulation along the therapeutic agent so as to impart specific qualities in the formulation.
These are have very little or no therapeutic value but are necessary in the manufacture of various dosage forms.
Purposes served by Additives:
Provide bulk to the formulation.
Facilitate drug absorption or solubility and other pharmacokinetic considerations.
Aid in handling of “API” during manufacturing .
Provide stability and prevent from denaturation etc
Exists without actions of humankind in the form of matter/energy which is available in the earth and get used by living thing.
Or exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, air and as well as a living organism such as a fish.
Or it may exist in an alternate form that must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, petroleum, and most forms of energy.
Extraction is a process of separation or isolation of pharmaceutical active ingredients
from plant or animal drugs with the help of solvent.
On the basis of the physical nature of crude drug to be extracted i.e. liquid or solid ,the extraction process may be:
Liquid –Liquid Extraction Or
Solid –Liquid Extraction.
The solvent used for extraction is called as ‘Menstruum’ and the residue left after extracting desired constituents is called ‘Marc’.
Required Ideal Properties of Menstruum :
Should be inert and non –toxic
Should extract only the desirable constituent of the crude drug .
Should be cheap and easily available
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most chronic, slowly progressive age associated
neurodegenerative disorder characterized by selective loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) pars compacta, leads to deficiency or depletion dopamine (DA) in the striatum.
Idiopathic - (unknown cause)
Genetic - (clustering of early-onset pd in some families)
Drug induced (Anti-depressant, calcium channel blockers)
Toxins – (Environmental and Neurotoxins)
Head Trauma – (During accidental conditions)
Cerebral Anoxia
Histamine is an endogenous substance that is amine synthesized, stored and released by the various cells of the body: (a) Mast cells, which are abundant in the skin, GI, and the respiratory tract,
(b) Basophils in the blood, and (c) Some neurons in the CNS and peripheral NS.
It is an “Autocoid” that is secreted locally and regulate the activity of various near lying cells and neurons.
Huntington's disease is slowly progressive, rapidly growing hereditary brain disease that causes abnormal motor coordination, thinking, behavior and ultimately leads to dementia.
Its necessary to diagnosis earlier i.e. onset of movement disorder, particularly
with chorea and impaired voluntary movement.
Autosomal dominant inheritance with 2000 people are diagnosed each year.
No drug therapy is available
The worldwide prevalence of Huntington’s Disease is 5-10 cases per 10000 which affects men and women equally
SPECTROSCOPY is defined as the study of the interactions between radiations and matter as function of wavelength λ .
Interactions with particle radiation or a response of a material to an altering field
or varying frequency.
SPECTRUM : A plot of the response as a function of wavelength or more commonly frequency is referred to as spectrum.
SPECTROMETRY : It is measurement of these responses and an instrument which performs such measurements is a spectrophotometer or spectrograph, although
these terms are more limited in use to original field of optics from which the
concept sprang.
HPTLC is the improved method of TLC which utilizes the conventional technique of TLC in more optimized way.
It is also known as planar chromatography or Flat-bed chromatography.
Chromatography is a physical process of separation in which the components to be separated are distributed between 2 immiscible phases-a stationary phase which has a large surface area and mobile phase which is in constant motion through the stationary phase.
A Ward round is a visit made by a medical practitioner, alone or with a team of health care professionals and medical students to hospital in-patients at their bedside to review and follow-up the progress in their health.
Usually at least one ward round is conducted
everyday to review the progress of each
patient outcome.
Pharmacist’s participating in medical ward
rounds promotes health care
Participation of the Pharmacists in ward
rounds in various practice settings helps to
provide rational drug use.
PHARMACOVIGILANCE
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines Pharmacovigilance as “the science and activities relating to the detection, assessment, understanding and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problem.”
ADVERSE DRUG REACTION
According to WHO “ADR is a response to a drug which is noxious and unintended, and which occurs at doses normally used in man for the prophylaxis, diagnosis, or therapy of disease, or for the modifications of physiological function.”
Have full fleged clinical trial data management systems which bring them a good amount of business and revenue.
CDM is a fundamental process which controls data accuracy of each trial besides helping the timelessness to be achieved.
It helps in linking clinical research co-ordinator = who monitor all the sites & collects the data.
it Links with biostatisticians = who analyze, interpret and report data in clinically meaningful way.
Pyrogens include any substance capable of eliciting a febrile (or fever) response upon injection or infection
Endotoxin is a subset of pyrogens that are strictly of gram- negative bacterial origin; they occur (virtually) nowhere else in nature.
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)is a part of endotoxin, or, endotoxin is the natural complex of LPS occurring in the outer layer of the bilayered gram-negative bacterial cell
The efficacy of antimicrobial preservation of a pharmaceutical preparation on its own or, if necessary, with the addition of a suitable preservative has to be ascertained during the development of the product.
The primary purpose of adding antimicrobial preservatives to dosage forms is to prevent adverse effects arising from contamination by micro-organisms that may be introduced inadvertently during or subsequent
to the manufacturing process.
However, antimicrobial agents should not be used solely to reduce the viable microbial count as a substitute for good manufacturing procedures.
There may be situations where a preservative system may have to be used to minimise proliferation of micro-organisms in preparations that are not required to be sterile.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
The Gram stain is a fundamental technique in microbiology used to classify bacteria based on their cell wall structure. It provides a quick and simple method to distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, which have different susceptibilities to antibiotics
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Adv. biopharm. APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMSAkankshaAshtankar
MIP 201T & MPH 202T
ADVANCED BIOPHARMACEUTICS & PHARMACOKINETICS : UNIT 5
APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS By - AKANKSHA ASHTANKAR
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
CDSCO and Phamacovigilance {Regulatory body in India}NEHA GUPTA
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) is India's national regulatory body for pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Operating under the Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, the CDSCO is responsible for approving new drugs, conducting clinical trials, setting standards for drugs, controlling the quality of imported drugs, and coordinating the activities of State Drug Control Organizations by providing expert advice.
Pharmacovigilance, on the other hand, is the science and activities related to the detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problems. The primary aim of pharmacovigilance is to ensure the safety and efficacy of medicines, thereby protecting public health.
In India, pharmacovigilance activities are monitored by the Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI), which works closely with CDSCO to collect, analyze, and act upon data regarding adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Together, they play a critical role in ensuring that the benefits of drugs outweigh their risks, maintaining high standards of patient safety, and promoting the rational use of medicines.
CDSCO and Phamacovigilance {Regulatory body in India}
ALKALOIDS AND ITS ASSAY METHODS
1. ALKALOIDS AND ITS ASSAY METHODS
SEEMA BRAR
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPT. OF PHARMACOGNOSY
ISF COLLEGE OF PHARMACY
MOBILE: 8437394397
WEBSITE: - WWW.ISFCP.ORG
ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga
Ghal Kalan,nGT Road, Moga- 142001, Punjab, INDIA
Internal Quality Assurance Cell - (IQAC)
Email ID: Seemabrar001@gmail.com
2. DEFINITION OF ALKALOIDS
These are the organic products of natural or synthetic origin which are basic in
nature & contain one or more than one nitrogen atoms, normally of heterocyclic nature &
possess specific physiological actions on human or animal body, when used in small quantites.
The term is derived from the word ‘alkali-like’ & hence they resemble some of characters
of naturally occuring amines.
The term is derived from the word ‘alkali-like’ & hence they resemble some of
characters of naturally occuring amines.
2
3. 3Deviation from Definition
Basicity: Some alkaloids are not basic e.g. Colchicine, Piperine, Quaternary
alkaloids.
Nitrogen: The nitrogen in some alkaloids is not in a heterocyclic ring e.g.
Ephedrine, Colchicine, Mescaline.
Plant Origin: Some alkaloids are derived from Bacteria, Fungi, Insects, Frogs,
Animals.
4. 4
Alkaloids are worldwide present in many families, ranging from primitive mosses to highly
complex graminae.
Rare in lower plants.
Dicots are more rich in alkaloids than Monocots.
Families rich in Alkaloids: Apocynaceae, Rubiaceae, Solanaceae and Papaveraceae.
Families free from Alkaloids: Rosaceae, Labiatae
Distribution and occurrence:
5. 5Forms of Alkaloids:
Free bases Salts with Organic acids e.g. Oxalic, acetic acids
Salts with inorganic acids e.g. HCl, H2SO4.
Salts with special acids: e.g. Meconic acid in Opium , Quinic acid in
Cinchona
Glycosidal form e.g. Solanine in Solanum.
N-oxide form
6. 6ROLE OF ALKALOIDS IN PLANTS
They are reserve substances with an ability to supply nitrogen.
They might be the defensive mechanisms for plants growing in dry regions to protect
from grazing animals, herbivores & insects.
They might have a possible role as growth regulatory factors in the plants.
These are end products of detoxification mechanisms in plants.
These are present in conjugation with the plant acids such as meconic acid hence
acting as carriers within the plants for transportation of such acids.
8. 8
TRUE ALKALOIDS: These contain heterocyclic nitrogen, which is derived from amino
acids & always basic in nature. These alkaloids are toxic & normally present in plants as
salts of organic acids e.g. Morphine, Codeine
PROTO ALKALOIDS :These are simple amines in which the nitrogen is not in heterocyclic
ring. Some times these are considered as biological amines. These are basic in nature &
prepared in plants from aminoacids e.g. Colchicine, Ephedrine
PSEUDO ALKALOIDS: These includes mainly steroidal, terpenoid alkaloids & purines.
These are not derived from amino acids.These do not show many of the typical
characters of alkaloids but give the standard qualitative tests for alkaloids. e.g. caffeine.
9. 9
Biogenetic.
Based on the biogenetic pathway that form the alkaloids.
Botanical Source.
According to the plant source of alkaloids.
Type of Amines.
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary alkaloids.
Basic Chemical Skeleton
Classification of Alkaloids
10. 10CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ALKALOIDS
TRUE ALKALOIDS
•PYRROLE &
PYRROLIDINE
DERIVATIVES
e.g. Hygrine, Cocca species
•Pyrrolizidine Derivatives
e.g. senecionine, seneciphylline
11. 11
N
H
• Piperidine & pyridine derivatives
e.g. arecoline, lobeline
TROPANE DERIVATIVES
e.g. Atropine, hyoscine, cocaine
15. 15PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
With few exceptions, all the alkaloids are colourless, crystalline solids with a sharp melting
point.
Some of the alkaloids are amorphous gums, while other are liquid & volatile in nature.
Some alkaloids are coloured in nature e.g. berberine is yellow.
Free bases of alkaloids are soluble in organic, non-polar, immiscible solvents.
The salts of most bases are soluble in water.
Free bases are insoluble in water.
The alkaloids containing quarternary bases are only water soluble.
Some of pseudoalkaloids & protoalkaloids show higher solubility in water e.g. caffeine is
freely soluble in water.
16. 16CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Most of the alkaloids are basic in reaction, due to the availability of lone pair of electrons
on nitrogen.
The basic character of the alkaloid is enhanced if the adjacent functional groups are
electron releasing.
The alkaloid turns to be neutral or acidic when the adjacent functional groups are
electron withdrawing like amide group which reduces the availability of the lone pair of
electrons.
Alkaloids exhibiting basic character are very much sensitive to decomposition & cause a
problem during storage their salt formation.
The alkaloids may contain one or more no. of nitrogen. It may exist in the form as
Primary amine (R-NH2) e.g. mescaline
Secondary amine (R2-NH) e.g. ephedrine
Tertiary (R3-N) e.g.atropine
Quartanary ammonium compounds e.g.tubocurarine hydrochloride
17. 17GENERAL PROCEDURE TO OBTAIN ALKALOIDAL EXTRACT
Ground Plant Material
a)Defat with Hexane
b)Extract with methanol, filter, concentrate
Methanolic Crude Extract
a)Treat with 1% aqueous HCl
b)Partition with diethyl ether
Diethyl ether phase
Concentrate (neutral compounds)
Aqueous-acid phase
a)Alk. with NH4OH
b)Partition with CHCl3
Chloroform extract
(primary, secondary
& tertiary alkaloids)
Aqueous alkaloids
(quarternary
Alkaloids)
18. 18
Plant material and solvent
Extract
Concentration
Acidified Extract (Alk. as salts)
Organic solvent dissove Impurities
Acidification
Alkalinization
Alkaline aqueous layer
Organic solvent dissove Alkaloids
20. 20Quantitation
In the quantitation of the total alkaloids generally the alkaline medium approach is
preferred
The total alkaloid residue is estimated by a gravimetric method or a volumetric
method.
The gravimetric methods are easy to implement, but the simple weighing of the total
alkaloid residue lacks precision.
Volumetric methods are based either on direct acidimetry or most often on back
titration of the acid.
21. 21Quantitation
After dissolving the residue in access of titrated acid, the acid in access is quantitated
by a base of known concentration in the presence of an indicator .
If needed ,acid titration in aqueous medium can be used (weak bases).
To quantitate one constituent,or one group of constituents,in a drug,the available
techniques include-
Spectrophotometry
Colorimetry
Fluorimetry
Densiometry
The spectrophotometric methods are very sensitive and farely often recommended,for
e.g-to quantitate quinine-and cinconine-type alkaloids in cinchona bark by measuring
the absorbance at two different wavelengths,or to quantitate caffene in tea leaves.
22. 22Quantitation
If the quantitation cannot be carried out directly,it is possible to isolate the compound
to be measured by TLC and to measure the absorbance after elluting the spots(e.g-
quantitation of ajmalicine in catharanthus roots).
The colorimetric methods can also be applied to quantitation of one alkaloid (of a
group of alkaloids),for e.g the weak bases of rauwolfia.
HPLC replaced the classic methods like gravimetric method of morphine has been
replaced with an HPLC method.
23. 23TITRIMETRIC METHOD
(FOR HYOSCYAMINE AND SCOPOLAMINE)
alkaloids exracted by ether
purified by re-extracting with 0.5%N sulphuric acid
then purified with chloroform
Distilled off the chloroform extract
Treated the dried residual extract with slight excess of standardised sulphuric acid
in order to form salt
Titrated with standardised alkali (ammonia solution) to determine the quantity of unreacted acid
Quantity of alkaloids is calculated from the molar quantity of acid which has reacted with
alkaloids to form the salt.
24. 24ASSAY OF ALKALOIDS BY TITRIMETRIC METHOD:
FOR ATROPINE:
• Weigh accurately about 0.5g sample and dissolve it in 5 ml of alcohal , previously
nuetralised to solution of methyl red. Add 20 ml of 0.1N and titrate the excess of acid with
0.1N NaOH using solution of methyl red as indicator.
Each ml of 0.1N HCl is equivalent to 0.02834g of atropine.
FOR MORPHINE:
•Weigh accurately about 0.1g sample and add to it about 25ml of water and 0.05M NaOH (5ml).
Mix well ,add ammonium sulphate(1g),shake well to dissolve and add 95% ethanol (20ml).
• Extract with a mixture of chloroform /ethanol(95%) {3:1}.
• Wash each extract with 5 ml water and filter through a small plug of cotton wool.
• Distill off the solvent and dissolve the obtained residue in 0.05M HCl(10ml). Boil and cool the
solution and add water(15 ml).
• Titrate the excess acid with 0.05M NaOH , using methyl red as indicator.
Each ml of 0.05M HCl is equivalent to 0.01897g of morphine.
25. 25GRAVIMETRIC METHOD
Powdered drug
defatting with pet.ether or hexane
Made alkaline with ammonia solution or sodium carbonate or calcium Hydroxide
Alkaloids are freed as bases
Extracted with organic solvent- chloroform , ether or methylene dichloride
Residual organic fraction like pigments , fats ,
soluble alkaloidal sulphates
Residual aqueous fraction
organic solution of alkaloid bases
Crude alkaloidal mixture
Distilled off the solvent