Describe the structures, relations, and functions of the adrenal gland.
describe the histological structures and clinical importance of the adrenal gland
In testis, the immature male germ cell (spermatogonia ) produce sperms by spermatogenesis
The spermatogonia ( sing. Spermatogonium ) present on the inside of seminiferous tubules multiply by mitotic division and increase in numbers
Each spermatogonium is diploid and contains 46 chromosomes
Some of the spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis.A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division (reduction division) leading to formation of two equal, haploid cells called secondary spermatocyte, which have only 23 chromosomes
The secondary spermatocyte undergo the second meiotic division to produce four equal, haploid spermatids
Describe the structures, relations, and functions of the adrenal gland.
describe the histological structures and clinical importance of the adrenal gland
In testis, the immature male germ cell (spermatogonia ) produce sperms by spermatogenesis
The spermatogonia ( sing. Spermatogonium ) present on the inside of seminiferous tubules multiply by mitotic division and increase in numbers
Each spermatogonium is diploid and contains 46 chromosomes
Some of the spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis.A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division (reduction division) leading to formation of two equal, haploid cells called secondary spermatocyte, which have only 23 chromosomes
The secondary spermatocyte undergo the second meiotic division to produce four equal, haploid spermatids
DEVELOPMENT OF PLACENTA,PLACENTA AT TERM , DECIDUA,PLACENTAL MEMBRANE , PLACENTAL CICULATION,PLACENTAL ENDOCRINE SYNTHESIS,ABNORMAL PLACENTA,FUNCTIONS.
1. Spermatogenesis (Spermatocytogenesis, Spermiogenesis, Spermiation, Shape and function of cells inside the Testis, Semen and sperm structure, Sperm journey after synthesis to outside)
ovaries, fallopian tube, component of internal genitalia, location of ovarie, boundaries of ovaries,external features of ovaries,ligaments of ovaries, support of ovaries, broad ligament, mesovarium, mesosalpinx, mesometrium, round ligament of uterus, blood supply and lymphatics of ovaries, prts of fallopian tube, blood supply of fallopian tube, ectopic pregnancy, polycystic ovaries,
DEVELOPMENT OF PLACENTA,PLACENTA AT TERM , DECIDUA,PLACENTAL MEMBRANE , PLACENTAL CICULATION,PLACENTAL ENDOCRINE SYNTHESIS,ABNORMAL PLACENTA,FUNCTIONS.
1. Spermatogenesis (Spermatocytogenesis, Spermiogenesis, Spermiation, Shape and function of cells inside the Testis, Semen and sperm structure, Sperm journey after synthesis to outside)
ovaries, fallopian tube, component of internal genitalia, location of ovarie, boundaries of ovaries,external features of ovaries,ligaments of ovaries, support of ovaries, broad ligament, mesovarium, mesosalpinx, mesometrium, round ligament of uterus, blood supply and lymphatics of ovaries, prts of fallopian tube, blood supply of fallopian tube, ectopic pregnancy, polycystic ovaries,
A small gland that makes steroid hormones, adrenaline, and noradrenalineRuvarasheMutadza1
A small gland that makes steroid hormones, adrenaline, and noradrenaline. These hormones help control heart rate, blood pressure, and other important body functions. There are two adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. Also called suprarenal gland.
Structure and function of adrenal glandsMoses Kayungi
Structure and function of adrenal glands
• Anatomically, the adrenal glands (suprarenal) are located in the thoracic abdomen situated 'on' top of the kidneys one on each side, specifically on their anterosuperior aspect.
• They are surrounded by the adipose capsule and the renal fascia
• They consist of two parts,
The outer cortex
The inner medulla.
Adrenal Cortex
• The adrenal cortex is devoted to the synthesis of corticosteroid hormones from cholesterol.
It completes the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
The source of cortisol and corticosterone hormones
• The cortex is divided into three zones, or layers.
• This division is sometimes referred to as ‘functional zonation”
Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasciculata
Zona reticularis
Adrenal Medulla
• The adrenal medulla is the core of the adrenal gland, and is surrounded by the adrenal cortex.
• The chromaffin cells of the medulla are the body's main source of the circulating catecholamines, adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine
Blood supply to Adrenal Gland
• Although variations of the blood supply to the adrenal glands (and indeed the kidneys themselves) are common, there are usually three arteries that supply each adrenal gland:
The superior suprarenal artery is provided by the inferior phrenic artery.
The middle suprarenal artery is provided by the abdominal aorta.
The inferior suprarenal artery is provided by the renal artery
• Venous drainage of the adrenal glands is achieved via the suprarenal veins:
The right suprarenal vein drains into the inferior vena cava.
The left suprarenal vein drains into the left renal vein or the left inferior phrenic vein
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
1. ANATOMY OF ADRENAL GLANDS
By,
Y. V. Vanaja
Lecturer
Vijay Marie College Of Nursing
2. The paired adrenal glands, one of which lies superior to each kidney in the
retroperitoneal space.
Flattened pyramidal shape.
Each adrenal gland is 3-5 cm in height, 2-3 cm inn width, and a little less
than 1 cm thick, with a mass of 3.5 -5g,only half its size at birth.
During embryonic development, the adrenal glands differentiate into two
structurally and functionally distinct regions
• Peripherally located adrenal cortex – comprising 80 – 90% of the gland
• Small , centrally located adrenal medulla.
Connective tissue capsule covers the gland.
The adrenal glands are highly vascularized
The adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones that are essential for life
The adrenal medulla produces three catecholamine hormones –
norepinephrine, epinephrine, and a small amount of dopamine
3. Adrenal Cortex
The adrenal cortex is subdivided into 3 zones
Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasciculate
Zona reticularis
• Outer zone – Zonaglomerulosa
• Its cells are closely packed and arranged in spherical clusters and arched columns
• It secrete hormones called mineralocorticoids – affect mineral homeostatsis.
• Middle zone or Zona fasciculata
• It is the widest of the three zones and consists of cells arranged in long, straight columns.
• The cells of the zona fasciculata secrete mainly glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol, so named
because they affect glucose homeostatsis
• Inner zone – zona reticularis
• Arranged in branching cords
• They synthesize small amounts of weak androgens, steroid hormones that have masculinizing
effects
4.
5. Mineralocorticoids:
• Aldosterone is the major mineralocorticoid
• It regulates homeostasis of 2 mineral ions- namely, sodium ions, and potassium ions- and helps
adjust blood pressure and the blood volume.
• aldosterone also promotes excretion of hydrogen in the urine
• This removal of acids from the body can help prevent acidosis.
Glucocorticoids:
• The glucocorticoids, which regulate metabolism and resistance to stress, include
• cortisol also called as hydrocortisone.
• Corticosterone
• Cortisone
• These 3 hormones secreted by the zona faciculata
• Cortisol is the most abundant, accounting for the 95% of glucocorticoid activity
6. Androgens
• In both males and females, the adrenal cortex secretes small amounts of weak
androgens.
• The major androgen secreted by the adrenal gland is dehydroepiandrosterone
(DHEA)
• After puberty in males, the androgen testosterone is also released in much
greater quantity by the testes.
• In females, however, adrenal androgens play important roles.
• They promote libido and are converted into estrogens by other body tissues.
• Adrenal androgens also stimulate growth of axillary and pubic hair in boys and
girls and contribute to the prepubertal growth spurt.
• The hormone that stimulates its secretion is ACTH
7. Adrenal medulla
• The inner region of the adrenal gland, the adrenal medulla, is a modified sympathetic
ganglion of the autonomic nervous system.
• It develops from the same embryonic tissue as all other sympathetic ganglia, but its cells,
which lacks axons, form clusters around large blood vessels.
• Rather than releasing a neurotransmitter, the cells of the adrenal medulla secrete hormones.
• The hormone producing cells called chromaffin cells..
• Because the ANS exerts direct control over the chromaffin cells, hormone release can occur
very quickly.
• Two major hormones released by adrenal medulla are
• Epinephrine or adrenaline
• Norepinephrine or noradrenaline
• The chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla secrete an unequal amount of these hormones –
about 80% epinephrine and 20% norepinephrine
• The hormones of the adrenal medulla intensify sympathetic responses that occur in other
parts of the body.
8. In stressful situations and during exercise , impulses from the hypothalamus stimulate sympathetic preganglionic neurons,
which in turn stimulate the chromaffin cells to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine.
These two hormones greatly augment the fight –or –flight response
• By increasing the HR and force of contraction, epinephrine and norepinephrine increase the output of the heart, which
increases B.P
• These also increases blood flow to the heart, liver, skeletal muscles, and adipose tissue;
• Dilate airways of lungs
• Increase blood levels of glucose and fatty acids
10. Renin – angiotensin- aldosterone or RAA pathway
Stimuli that initiate the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway include dehydration, sodium deficiency or hemorrhage
These conditions cause a decrease in blood volume
Decreased blood volume leads to decrease d blood pressure
Lowered blood pressure stimulates certain cells of the kidneys, called juxtaglomerular cells, to secrete the enzyme renin.
The level of renin in the blood increases
Renin converts angiotensinogen a plasma protein produced by the liver, into angiotensin I
Blood containing increased levels of angiotensin I circulates in the body
As blood flows through the capillaries, particularly those of the lungs, the enzyme angiotensin- converting enzyme
converts angiotensin1 into the hormone angiotensin II
11. Blood level of angiotensin II increases
Angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone
Blood containing increased levels of aldosterone circulates to the kidneys
In the kidneys, aldosterone increases reabsorption of sodium, which in turn causes reabsorption of water by
osmosis
• As a result water is lost in the urine
• Aldosterone also stimulates the kidneys to increase secretion of potassium and hydrogen into the urine
With increase reabsorption by the kidneys, blood volume increases
As blood volume increases, blood pressure increases to normal
12. Angiotensin II also stimulates contraction of smooth muscle in the walls of arterioles
The resulting vasoconstriction of the arterioles increases blood pressure and thus helps raise blood
pressure to normal
Besides angiotensin II, a second stimulator of aldosterone secretion is an increase in the potassium
concentration of blood.
a decrease in the blood potassium level has the opposite effect
.
13.
14. Regulation of glucocorticoids
• Control of glucocorticoid secretion occurs via a typical negative feedback system.
• Low blood levels of glucocorticoids, mainly cortisol
• Stimulates neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus to secrete corticotropin releasing hormone(CRH)
• Promotes the release of ACTH from the anterior pituitary
• ACTH flows in the blood to the adrenal cortex, stimulates glucocorticoid secretion
15.
16. Effects of Glucocorticoids
Protein Break down:
• Glucocorticoids increase the rate of protein breakdown, mainly in , muscle fibers, and thus liberation of amino
acids into the blood stream
• The amino acids may be used by body cells for synthesis of new proteins or for ATP production
Glucose Formation:
• On stimulation by glucocorticoids liver cells may convert certain amino acids or lactic acid to
glucose, which neurons and other cells can use for ATP production.
Lipolysis;
• Breakdown of triglycerides and release of fatty acids from adipose tissue into the blood
Resistance to stress;
• The additional glucose supplied by the liver cells provides tissues with a ready source of ATP
to combat a range of stresses
• Glucocorticoids makes blood vessels more sensitive to other hormones that cause
vasoconstriction, they raise B.P
17. Anti-inflammatory Effect;
• Glucocorticoids inhibit WBC that participate in inflammatory responses.
• Unfortunately, glucocorticoids also retard tissue repair, as a result, they slow wound healing
• Glucocorticoids are very useful in the treatment of chronic inflammatory disorders.
Depression of Immune responses:
• High doses of glucocorticoids depress immune responses
• Glucocorticoids are prescribed for organ transplant recipients to retard tissue rejection by the immune
system.
18. Cushing syndrome
Introduction;
Cushing syndrome occurs when body is exposed to high levels of the hormone
cortisol for a long time. Cushing syndrome, sometimes called hypercortisolism,
may be caused by the use of oral corticosteroid medication. The condition can
also occur when body makes too much cortisol on its own.
Definition;
Cushing syndrome is a spectrum of clinical abnormalities caused by excess
corticosteroids, particularly glucocorticoids
19. Causes of cushing syndrome
• Prolonged administration of high doses of corticosteroids
• ACTH secreting pituitary tumor
• Cortisol – secreting neoplasm within the adrenal cortex that can be either carcinoma or
adenoma
• Excess secretion of ACTH from carcinoma of the lung or other malignant growth outside
the pituitary or adrenal glands.
• body may produce high levels of cortisol for a variety of reasons, including:
• high stress levels, including stress related to an acute illness, surgery, injury, or pregnancy,
especially in the final trimester
• malnutrition
• alcoholism
• depression, panic disorders, or high levels of emotional stress
21. In addition to the symptoms above, children
with Cushing’s syndrome may also have:
•obesity
•slower rate of growth
•high blood pressure (hypertension)
22. MANAGEMENT
• The primary goal of treatment for cushing’s disease is to normalize hormone
secretion.
• If the underlying cause is pituitary adenoma, the standard treatment is surgical
removal of the pituitary tumor
• Radiation to the pituitary adenoma may be necessary if the surgical outcomes
are not optimal.
23. Addisons syndrome
Definition;
Addison's disease, also known as primary adrenal insufficiency and hypocortisolism, is a long-term endocrine
disorder in which the adrenal glands do not produce enough steroid hormones.
Causes;
• Autoimmune response
• T.B
• Infarction
• Fungal disease
• AIDS
• Metastatic cancer
24.
25. Management
Treatment of adrenocortical insufficiency is replacement therapy
Hydrocortisone is the most commonly used form of replacement therapy, has both glucocorticoid and
mineralocorticoid properties
Large volumes of 0.9% saline solutions and 5% dextrose are administered to reverse hypotension and electrolyte
imbalance until B.p returns to normal.