A presentation on the anatomy and physiology of the human body's endocrinological system. Based on the book Human Anatomy & Physiology, 11th Edition

1. Endocrine System
Presentation by: Group 3
De Jesus • Wu • De Guzman • Niñal

2. • Uses lighting – fast electrochemical action
potentials delivered by neuron to specific cells
and organ
• Built for speed for rapid adjustment
Nervous System

3. • Second great controlling system of the body
• Maintain the homeostasis throughout the body
system.
Hormones – chemical messengers by the endocrine
system
• Endocrinology – study of hormones and endocrine
organs
• Endocrinologist – who study hormone and
endocrine
Endocrine System

5. • Hormone are produced by specialized cells
• Cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluids
• Blood transfers hormones to target sites
• These hormones regulate the activity of other
cells.
Hormones

6. • Amino Acid - Based – proteins, peptides
and amines
• Steroids - from cholesterol,
oGonads ( sex hormones and adrenal cortex)
• Prostaglandins - highly active lipids
released from nearly cell membranes.
Different Classification of Hormone

7. • How do hormones causes effects?
 Hormone affect only certain tissue or
organs (target cells or target organs)
Target cells must have specific protein
receptors.
Hormones binding alters cellular activity.
Mechanisms Hormone Action

8. • Change plasma membrane permeability or
electrical state.
• Activate or inactivate enzymes.
• Stimulates or inhibit secretion of a product.
• Promote or inhibit secretion of a product.
• Turn on or off transcription of certain genes.
Effects Caused By Hormones

9. • Direct Gene Activation
• Second Messenger System
Mechanisms of Hormones

10. • (they're lipid soluble molecules )
• Steroid and thyroid hormone
Direct Gene Activation

11. • Diffuse through the
plasma membranes of
their target cells
• Enter the nucleus
• Bind to a specific
protein reception in
nucleus
• Bind to specific sites on
the cell’s DNA
• Activate genes that
result in synthesis of
new proteins via mRNA
Direct Gene Activation

13. 1. Hormonal Stimulus – endocrine organs are
prodded into action by other hormones
2. Humoral Stimulus – changing blood levels
of certain ions and nutrients stimulates
hormone release.
3. Neural Stimulus – nerve fibers stimulate
hormone release.
How Various Endocrine Glands Are Stimulated

15. Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Parathyroid glands
(on dorsal aspect
of thyroid gland)
Thymus
Thyroid gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Ovary (female)
Testis (male)

16. The Major Endocrine Organs – Pituitary Gland

17. The Major Endocrine Organs - Anterior
1. Growth Hormone - growth of skeletal muscles
and long bones of the body – plays a role in
determining final body size
2. Prolactin - stimulates and maintains milk
production after childbirth
3. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) -
regulates the endocrine activity
• Thyrotropic Hormone (TH) influences the growth
and activity of the thyroid gland
4. Gonadotropic Hormone - regulates the
hormonal activity of the gonads

19. The Major Endocrine Organs - Anterior
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) ♂ & ♀
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) ♀
• triggers ovulation of an egg from the ovary
Interstitial Cell-Stimulating Hormone ♂
• stimulates testosterone production
GIRLS BOYS
Development in the ovaries
Stimulates sperm development by
the testesAs they mature, they produce
estrogen
Readied for ovulation

20. The Major Endocrine Organs – Pituitary Gland

21. Homeostatic Imbalance
1. Pituitary Dwarfism - body
proportions are fairly normal,
but the person as a whole is a
living miniature
2. Gigantism - extremely tall;
height of 8 to 9 feet is
common. Again, body
proportions are fairly normal
3. Acromegaly - bones increase
in size, including those of your
hands, feet and face.
4. Diabetes Inspires - insufficient
production of ADH; inability of
the kidneys to respond
appropriately to this hormone

22. The Major Endocrine Organs - Posterior
1. Oxytocin - released during childbirth and in
nursing women
2. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) - causes the
kidneys to reabsorb more water from the
forming urine and as a result

23. Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Parathyroid glands
(on dorsal aspect
of thyroid gland)
Thymus
Thyroid gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Ovary (female)
Testis (male)

25. Thyroid Gland
1. Thyroid Hormone (T3 & T4)
• The body’s major metabolic hormone.
• Controls the rate at which glucose is burned and
converted to body heat and chemical energy
• Important for normal tissue growth and development,
especially in the reproductive and nervous systems
2. Calcitonin – Thyrocalcitonin
• Decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium to
be deposited in the bones
• Acts antagonistically to parathyroid hormone

26. Parathyroid Glands
1. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
• Parathormone – stimulates bone destruction cells
(osteoclasts) to break down bone matrix and release
calcium into the blood when blood calcium levels drop
– also stimulates the kidneys and intestines to absorb
more calcium.
• Liberation of calcium from bone to blood.
• Hyposecretion of PTH results in tetany;
• Hypersecretion leads to extreme bone wasting and
fractures.

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Adrenal Glands

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• Two curve like structures found on top of the
kidney
• Single organ structurally
• Made up of glandular and neural tissue
Adrenal Glands

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1. Promotes proper cardiovascular function
2. Helps in how we respond to stress
3. Properly utilizing carbohydrates and fats
4. Helps distribute stored fat
5. Gives you body odor and pubic hair
6. Promotes healthy gastrointestinal functions
Adrenal Glands

31. Adrenal Glands – Cortex Hormones
Corticosteroid Hormones - chemicals
produced by the adrenal cortex (It has 3 different
types)
• Mineralocorticoids - (mainly aldosterone) are produced by
the outermost adrenal cortex cell layer.
• Glucocorticoids - produced in the middle cortical layer and
includes cortisone and cortisol.
• Adrenal Androgens/Estrogens - Along with cortisol,
androgen and estrogen are produced in the inner layer (active
zone) and stored in the middle layer (storage zone)

32. Adrenal Glands – Medulla Hormones
Catecholamines
• Epinephrine (adrenaline) and Norepinephrine
(noradrenaline) – released during the “fight-or-
flight response of the sympathetic nervous system
to help the body cope with short-term stressful
situations.

33. Adrenal Glands - Pathology
Adrenal Insufficiency
1. Primary A.I - 80% are due to an autoimmune
disease called Addison's disease or autoimmune
adrenalitis, impairment of the adrenal glands.
2. Secondary A.I - is caused by impairment of the
pituitary gland or hypothalamus, may lead to Pituitary
Adenoma (A Tumor in the Pituitary Gland,
suppresses production of adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH) and lead to adrenal deficiency
unless the endogenous hormones are replaced).
3. Tertiary A.I - is due to hypothalamic disease and
decrease in the release of corticotropin releasing
hormone (CRH), can include brain tumors and
sudden withdrawal from long-term exogenous steroid
use.

34. Pancreatic Islets

35. Pancreatic Islets
• The feedback system of the pancreatic islets is
paracrine, and is based on the activation and
inhibition of the islet cells by the endocrine
hormones produced in the islets.
• The pancreas serves two functions, endocrine
and exocrine.
• Pancreatic islets also called "Islets of
Langerhans"

36. Pancreatic Islets
• The pancreas reveals two different types of
parenchymal tissue: exocrine acini ducts and
the endocrine islets of Langerhans.
• The hormones produced in the islets of
Langerhans are insulin, glucagon, somatostatin,
pancreatic polypeptide, and ghrelin.
• The pancreatic hormones are secreted by
alpha, beta, delta, gamma, and epsilon cells.

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Pancreatic Islets - Hormones
1. Somatostatin - A polypeptide hormone,
secreted by the pancreas, that inhibits the
production of certain other hormones.
2. Insulin - A polypeptide hormone that regulates
carbohydrate metabolism.
3. Glucagon - A hormone, produced by the
pancreas, that opposes the action of insulin by
stimulating the production of sugar.

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Pancreatic Islets - Cells Produced In The Islets Of
Langerhans
1. Alpha cells that produce glucagon, and make up 15–20% of total
islet cells. Glucagon is a hormone that raises blood glucose levels
by stimulating the liver to convert its glycogen into glucose.
2. Beta cells that produce insulin and amylin, and make up 65–80%
of the total islet cells. Insulin lowers blood glucose levels by
stimulating cells to take up glucose out of the blood stream. Amylin
slows gastric emptying, preventing spikes in blood glucose levels.
3. Delta cells that produce somatostatin, and make up 3–10% of the
total islet cells. Somatostatin is a hormone that suppresses the
release of the other hormones made in the pancreas.
4. Gamma cells that produce pancreatic polypeptide, and make up
3–5% of the total islet cells. Pancreatic polypeptide regulates both
the endocrine and exocrine pancreatic secretions.
5. Epsilon cells that produce ghrelin, and make up less than 1% of
the total islet cells. Ghrelin is a protein that stimulates hunger.

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Pancreatic Islets - Pathology
Diabetes Mellitus - When control of insulin levels fails,
diabetes mellitus can result. As a consequence, insulin is
used medically to treat some forms of diabetes mellitus.
• Type 1 Diabetes - depends on external insulin (most
commonly injected subcutaneously) for their survival
because the hormone is no longer produced
internally.
• Type 2 Diabetes - are often insulin resistant and,
because of such resistance, they may suffer from a
relative insulin deficiency. Some patients with type 2
diabetes may eventually require insulin if other
medications fail to control blood glucose levels
adequately.

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Pineal Gland

42. 42
Pineal Gland
• Of the endocrine organs, the function of the pineal gland
was the last discovered.
• Located deep in the center of the brain, the pineal gland
was once known as the “third eye.”
• The pineal gland produces melatonin, which helps
maintain circadian rhythm and regulate reproductive
hormones.

43. 43
Pineal Gland
• The pineal gland secretes a single hormone
melatonin. This simple hormone is special
because its secretion is dictated by light.
• helps control your circadian rhythm and
regulate certain reproductive hormones.

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Thymus

45. 45
Thymus
• Receive immature T-cells that are produced in the red
bone marrow and train them into functional, mature t
cells that attack only foreign cells.
• Despite containing glandular tissue and producing
several hormones, is much more closely associated
with the immune system than with the endocrine
system.
• Serves a vital role in the training and development of t-
lymphocytes or t cells, an extremely important type of
white blood cell.

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Thymus
• Thymopoietin - a polypeptide hormone secreted by
the thymus; it induces the proliferation of lymphocyte
precursors and their differentiation into T-lymphocytes.
• Thymosin - a humoral factor secreted by the thymus;
it promotes the maturation of T-lymphocytes.
• Thymulin - a peptide hormone, released by the
thymus, with immune modulating and analgesic
actions.

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Thymus
1. Myasthenia Gravis - occurs when the thymus is abnormally large
and produces antibodies that block or destroy the muscles' receptor
sites. This causes the muscles to become weak and easily tired.
2. Pure Red Cell Aplasia (PRCA) - is thought to be caused
commonly by the patient's own immune cells attacking blood-
forming stem cells. This can happen when the thymus has a tumor.
3. Hypogammaglobulinemia - is a disorder where the body doesn't
produce enough antibodies. Infants with this condition typically
grow out of it without medical intervention.
4. Thymus Cancer Symptoms may include shortness of breath,
cough (which may bring up bloody sputum), chest pain, trouble
swallowing, loss of appetite and weight loss, headaches, swelling
of head face or neck, a bluish color to the skin and dizziness

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Gonads
TESTES OVARY

49. 49
Gonads
1. Male and female sex hormones are steroid hormones and as such,
can pass through the cell membrane of their target cells to
influence gene expression within cells.
2. Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary in the brain.
3. Hormones that stimulate the gonads to produce sex hormones are
known as gonadotropins. (The gonadotropins luteinizing hormone
(LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH))

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Gonads - Female Gonad Hormones
The primary hormones of the ovaries are estrogens and
progesterone.
1.Estrogens - group of female sex hormones important for
reproduction and the development of female sex
characteristics.
2.Progesterone - hormone that functions to prepare the
uterus for conception, regulates uterus changes during the
menstrual cycle, increases sexual desire, aids in ovulation,
and stimulates gland development for milk production
during pregnancy.
3.Androstenedione - Androgen hormone that serves as a
precursor to testosterone and estrogens.
4.Activin - Hormone that stimulates the production and
release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). It also
assists in menstrual cycle regulation.
5.Inhibin - Hormone that inhibits the production and
release of FSH.

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Gonads - Male Gonad Hormones
1. Androgens - hormones that primarily influence the
development of the male reproductive system.
Although found in much higher levels in men,
androgens are also produced in women.
Testosterone is the main androgen secreted by the
testes.
2. Testosterone - sex hormone important for the
development of male sex organs and sex
characteristics. Testosterone is responsible for
increased muscle and bone mass; increased growth
of body hair, development of broad shoulders,
deepening of the voice, and growth of the penis.
3. Androstenedione - Hormone that serves as a
precursor to testosterone and estrogens.
4. Inhibin - Hormone that inhibits the release of FSH
and is thought to be involved in sperm cell
development and regulation.

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Gonads
1. Gonadotropin Secretion is itself regulated by the tropic
hormone gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH),
which is produced by the hypothalamus. GnRH released
from the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary to release
the gonadotropins FSH and LH.
2. FSH and LH and, in turn, stimulate the gonads to
produce and secrete sex hormones.
3. The regulation of sex hormone production and secretion
is also an example of a negative feedback loop.
4. The sex hormones help to inhibit the release of GnRH,
LH, and FSH, which results in decreased sex hormone
production and secretion.

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Gonads
• Spermatogenesis - this process occurs continuously and takes
place within the male testes. The male germ cell or spermatocyte
undergoes a two-part cell division process called meiosis.
Meiosis produces sex cells with one half the number of
chromosomes as the parent cell.
• Oogenesis - occurs in the female ovaries. After meiosis is
complete, the oocyte egg cell is called a secondary oocyte.
• When fertilization is complete, the united sperm and ovum
become a zygote. A zygote is a cell that is at the earliest stage of
embryonic development. A woman will continue to produce eggs
until menopause.

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Grave’s Disease
• an autoimmune disorder
that causes
hyperthyroidism, or
overactive thyroid.
• immune system attacks the
thyroid and cause it to
make more thyroid
hormone than your body
needs.

55. 55
Hyperaldosteronism
• Also known as Conn's Syndrome
• a disease in which the adrenal gland(s)
make too much aldosterone which leads
to hypertension (high blood pressure)
and low blood potassium levels.

56. 56
Cushing’s Syndrome
• occurs when your
body makes too
much of the
hormone cortisol
over a long period
of time.

57. 57
Cretinism
• severe hypothyroidism in an infant or child
• a condition of severely stunted physical and
mental growth owing to untreated congenital
deficiency of thyroid hormone

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Myxedema
• severe form of hypothyroidism than can occur
when the condition is left untreated or is not
treated sufficiently.
• effects that hypothyroidism can have on the
skin, making it appear swollen and puffy.

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Addison’s Disease
• A rare, chronic
endocrine disorder
• Adrenal glands do
not produce
sufficient steroid
hormones.

60. Other Hormone
Producing Tissue And
Organs

61. Kidney
Secrete a variety of hormones, including
erythropoietin and the enzyme renin.
Erythropoietin is released in response to
hypoxia in the renal circulation. It stimulates
erythropoiesis (production of red blood cells )
in the bone marrow. .

62. Stomach and small intestine
 Gastrin is in the stomach and stimulates the
gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen and
hydrochloric acid. Secretion of gastrin is stimulated
by food arriving in the stomach.
Secretin is in the duodenum and signals the
secretion of sodium bicarbonate in the pancreas
and it stimulates the secretion of bile in the liver.
Cholecystokinin (CCK) is in the duodenum and
stimulates the release of digestive enzymes in the
pancreas and stimulates the emptying of bile in the
gall bladder. This hormone is secreted in response
to fat in chyme.

63. The heart
• Trial natriuretic hormone (ANH) is a powerful
vasodilator and a protein hormone secreted by
heart muscle cells.
• It is involved in the homeostatic control of body
water, sodium, potassium, and fat.
• ANH is released by muscle cells in the upper
chambers (atria) of the heart in response to
high blood pressure.

64. Placenta
• is a remarkable organ formed
temporarily in the uterus of
pregnant women.
• it also produce several protein
and steroid hormones that help
to maintain the pregnancy and
pave the way for delivery of the
baby.
• During very early pregnancy, a
hormone called Human
Chorionic
• Gonadotropin is produced by
the developing embryo and then
the fetal part of the placenta.

65. The Major Functions Of The Placenta Include
 Nutrition
Excretion
Immunity and protection
 Endocrine Function

66. Human Placental Lactogen
 it works cooperatively with estrogen and
progesterone in preparing the breast for
lactation.
 hormone produced by the placenta the
organ that develops during pregnancy to
help feed the growing baby. This hormone
breaks down fats from the mother to
provide fuel for the growing baby.

67. Relaxing
 placental hormone causes the mother ‘s
pelvic ligaments and the pubic symphysis
to relax and become more flexible which
ease birth passage.

68. Developmental
Aspect of the
Endocrine System

69. Pituitary Gland
• Derived form the
epithelium of the oral
cavity and a neural
tissue projection of the
hypothalamus.

70. Pineal gland
 Developed entirely
from neural tissue.
 The pineal
gland produces
melatonin, a
serotonin-derived
hormone which
modulates sleep
patterns in both
circadian and
seasonal cycles.

71. Epithelial gland
Develop as saclike out pocketing's of the
mucosa of the digestive tract.
Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so
they must receive nourishment via diffusion of
substances from the underlying connective
tissue, through the basement membrane.

72. Menopause
 The “change of life”
 During this period, a
woman’s reproductive
organ begin to atrophy,
and the ability to bear
children ends.

73. Gland Hormone Gland Hormone Major Action Regulated By
Hypothalamus
Hormones released by the posterior pituitary; releasing and
inhibiting hormones that regulate the anterior pituitary (see below)
Posterior Lobe Oxytocin
Stimulates
contraction of uterus
and the milk “let-
down” reflex
Nervous system
(hypothalamus), in
response to uterine
stretching and/or
suckling of a baby
Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH)
Promotes retention
of water by kidneys
Hypothalamus, in
response to
water/salt imbalance
Anterior Lobe Growth hormone (GH)
Stimulates growth
(especially of bones
and muscles) and
metabolism
Hypothalamic
releasing and
inhibiting hormones
Prolactin (PRL)
Stimulates milk
production
Hypothalamic
hormones
Follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH)
Stimulates
production of ova
and sperm
Hypothalamic
hormones
Luteinizing hormone
(LH)
Stimulates ovaries
and testes
Hypothalamic
hormones

74. Gland Hormone Gland Hormone Major Action Regulated By
Anterior Lobe
Thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH)
Stimulates thyroid
gland
Thyroxine in blood;
hypothalamic
hormones
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH)
Stimulates adrenal
cortex to secrete
glucocorticoids
Glucocorticoids;
hypothalamic
hormones
Pineal Gland Melatonin
Involved in
biological rhythms
(daily and seasonal)
Light/dark cycles
Thyroid Gland
Thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3)
Stimulates
metabolism
TSH
Parathyroid
Glands
Parathyroid
hormone
Raises blood
calcium ion level
Calcium ion level in
blood
Thymus Thymosin
“Programs”
T lymphocytes
Not known

75. Gland Hormone Gland Hormone Major Action Regulated By
Adrenal Medulla
Epinephrine and
norepinephrine
Raise blood glucose
level; increase rate
of metabolism;
constrict certain
blood vessels
Nervous system
(sympathetic
division)
Adrenal Cortex Glucocorticoids
Increase blood
glucose level
ACTH
Mineralocorticoids
Promote
reabsorption of Na+
and excretion of K+
(potassium) in
kidneys
Changes in blood
volume or blood
pressure; K+ or Na+
level in blood
Androgens and
estrogens (see entry
under gonads)
Pancreas Insulin
Reduces blood
glucose level
Glucose level in
blood
Glucagon
Reduces blood
glucose level
Glucose level in
blood

76. Gland Hormone Gland Hormone Major Action Regulated By
Gonads
• Testes
Androgens
Support sperm
formation;
development and
maintenance of
male secondary sex
characteristics
FSH and LH
• Ovaries Estrogens
Stimulate uterine
lining growth;
development and
maintenance of
female secondary
sex characteristics
FSH and LH
Progesterone
Promotes growth of
uterine lining
FSH and LH

77. In Relation to Physical Therapy
The endocrine rehabilitation team should
ideally include a trained clinical endocrinologist,
a physical therapist and a psychologist, with
opportunities for other specialist consultations.
The goal of such service would be to ensure
education, support and specific interventions,
helping the patient and his/her family to achieve
optimal coping with the difficulties of the recovery
process.
If a patient is suffering from Type 2 DM w/
pitting edema on (B) LE. Intervention: endurance
training using treadmill and elliptical machine,
and AROM of all (B) LE segments