Extrusion and drawing are metal forming processes that involve pushing or pulling metal through a die to reduce or change its cross-sectional area. Extrusion is used to produce parts like tubing, rails, and structural shapes, while drawing produces wires, rods, and small parts. Both processes can work metals at either room temperature or higher temperatures depending on the material's ductility. Proper die design is important for efficient extrusion or drawing with considerations for the workpiece geometry, corners, and thickness changes.
The document summarizes several solid state welding processes including forge welding, cold welding, roll welding, diffusion welding, explosion welding, friction welding, friction stir welding, and ultrasonic welding. Each process is described in terms of the mechanism involved, typical applications, and key characteristics. The processes can be used to join similar and dissimilar metals without melting, using pressure, friction, or ultrasonic vibrations to create strong metallurgical bonds.
This document discusses various types of resistance welding, including spot welding, seam welding, upset butt welding, and flash butt welding. Spot welding involves overlapping metal sheets and applying a current between electrode tips to generate heat and fuse the metals. Seam welding is similar but uses roller electrodes to continuously weld as the work moves. Upset butt welding joins bars end to end by heating the joint with current and then pressing the parts together. Flash butt welding clamps the parts, applies a current to burn away material, then increases speed and pressure to upset the weld once welding temperature is reached. Resistance welding offers advantages like high production rates and suitability for thin sheets and dissimilar metals.
This document provides an overview of metal forging processes. It begins with an introduction to forging and then classifies forging processes into hammer/drop forging and press forging. It further classifies processes as open-die forging or closed-die forging. The document also discusses typical forging operations, the types of forging machines, and provides examples of specific forging processes. It describes the goals of minimizing forging defects and achieving the desired final shape and properties of forged parts.
The document summarizes the rolling process. It defines rolling as plastically deforming metal by passing it between rolls. Rolling provides close dimensional control and high production. There are two main types: hot rolling and cold rolling. The document describes various rolling terminologies, mill products, defects, and different rolling processes like hot rolling, cold rolling, shaped rolling, and thread rolling. It also discusses factors like angle of contact, forces involved, and how to control flatness.
Sheet metal formability refers to a material's ability to undergo shaping without failures like necking or tearing. Three main factors influence formability: 1) the metal's properties, 2) friction levels during forming, and 3) the equipment used. Common tests to evaluate formability include cupping, tension, bulge, and forming limit diagrams. The earliest test was the Erichsen cupping test which measures the depth a ball can press into a clamped sheet before cracking. The bulge test applies hydraulic pressure to a clamped circular blank to measure its limit before failure from biaxial stretching. Forming limit diagrams map major and minor strains measured from grids printed on sheets after stretching tests.
This chapter discusses fundamentals of metalworking processes. It begins with an introduction and objectives, which are to classify metal forming processes based on applied forces and outline mechanics of metalworking. It then covers classification of processes, mechanics of metalworking including yield criteria, flow curves, and effects of temperature, speed, and friction. Hot and cold working are compared, noting differences in properties from annealing mechanisms. Finite element analysis is also introduced for determining stress distributions in metalworking.
The document summarizes several solid state welding processes including forge welding, cold welding, roll welding, diffusion welding, explosion welding, friction welding, friction stir welding, and ultrasonic welding. Each process is described in terms of the mechanism involved, typical applications, and key characteristics. The processes can be used to join similar and dissimilar metals without melting, using pressure, friction, or ultrasonic vibrations to create strong metallurgical bonds.
This document discusses various types of resistance welding, including spot welding, seam welding, upset butt welding, and flash butt welding. Spot welding involves overlapping metal sheets and applying a current between electrode tips to generate heat and fuse the metals. Seam welding is similar but uses roller electrodes to continuously weld as the work moves. Upset butt welding joins bars end to end by heating the joint with current and then pressing the parts together. Flash butt welding clamps the parts, applies a current to burn away material, then increases speed and pressure to upset the weld once welding temperature is reached. Resistance welding offers advantages like high production rates and suitability for thin sheets and dissimilar metals.
This document provides an overview of metal forging processes. It begins with an introduction to forging and then classifies forging processes into hammer/drop forging and press forging. It further classifies processes as open-die forging or closed-die forging. The document also discusses typical forging operations, the types of forging machines, and provides examples of specific forging processes. It describes the goals of minimizing forging defects and achieving the desired final shape and properties of forged parts.
The document summarizes the rolling process. It defines rolling as plastically deforming metal by passing it between rolls. Rolling provides close dimensional control and high production. There are two main types: hot rolling and cold rolling. The document describes various rolling terminologies, mill products, defects, and different rolling processes like hot rolling, cold rolling, shaped rolling, and thread rolling. It also discusses factors like angle of contact, forces involved, and how to control flatness.
Sheet metal formability refers to a material's ability to undergo shaping without failures like necking or tearing. Three main factors influence formability: 1) the metal's properties, 2) friction levels during forming, and 3) the equipment used. Common tests to evaluate formability include cupping, tension, bulge, and forming limit diagrams. The earliest test was the Erichsen cupping test which measures the depth a ball can press into a clamped sheet before cracking. The bulge test applies hydraulic pressure to a clamped circular blank to measure its limit before failure from biaxial stretching. Forming limit diagrams map major and minor strains measured from grids printed on sheets after stretching tests.
This chapter discusses fundamentals of metalworking processes. It begins with an introduction and objectives, which are to classify metal forming processes based on applied forces and outline mechanics of metalworking. It then covers classification of processes, mechanics of metalworking including yield criteria, flow curves, and effects of temperature, speed, and friction. Hot and cold working are compared, noting differences in properties from annealing mechanisms. Finite element analysis is also introduced for determining stress distributions in metalworking.
Metal forming processes are used to shape metals into useful products. Rolling is the most common forming process and accounts for around 90% of metal forming. It involves passing metal between rolls to reduce thickness or change cross-section. Forging uses dies and compression to shape hot or cold metal. Extrusion forces heated metal through a die to create shapes like rods, tubes and structural sections. Drawing pulls metal through a die to make wires, rods and tubes from both hot and cold workpieces. Deep drawing specifically makes cylindrical parts like cups from sheet metal.
There are two main types of die casting: hot-chamber and cold-chamber. In hot-chamber die casting, molten metal is kept inside the die casting machine, while in cold-chamber die casting the molten metal is poured into the machine from outside. Both processes use pressure to force molten metal into a die cavity to create parts. Cold-chamber die casting is more economical for large production quantities, provides good accuracy and surface finish, and requires less floor space than hot-chamber die casting.
Okay, here are the steps:
1) UTS of 5052-O aluminum = 280 MPa
2) Thickness, t = 1.8 mm
3) Cutting edge length, L = πD = π * 25 mm = 78.5 mm
4) Using the empirical formula:
Fmax = 7.0 * UTS * t * L
= 7.0 * 280 * 1.8 * 78.5
= 3,400 N
So the estimated maximum punch force required is 3,400 Newtons.
Metal forming processes include bulk deformation processes that significantly change the shape of metal parts through plastic deformation. The four main bulk deformation processes are rolling, forging, extrusion, and wire/bar drawing. Rolling involves passing metal between opposing rolls to reduce thickness or change cross-section. Forging involves compressing metal between dies to shape it. Extrusion uses a die to shape metal as it is squeezed through the die opening. Wire/bar drawing reduces diameter by pulling metal through a die. These processes are important for net-shape forming with little waste.
The document discusses various metal forming processes used to change the shape of metal workpieces through plastic deformation exceeding the metal's yield strength, including bulk deformation techniques like rolling, forging, and extrusion that involve significant shape changes with lower surface area to volume ratios, and sheet metalworking techniques like bending, drawing, and shearing that are performed on metal sheets or strips with higher surface area to volume ratios. Metal forming is an important manufacturing method that allows for net or near-net shape production, high production rates, profitability, and improved material properties.
1. Sheet metal forming operations include bending, stretching, deep drawing, and other processes where sheets are formed. Bending involves shaping a straight length into a curve and can be done using presses or rolls.
2. Deep drawing uses a die and punch to shape flat sheets into cup-shaped parts. Stretch forming clamps sheet edges and stretches the sheet over a die into the desired shape.
3. Successful forming requires considering the material properties, die and process parameters to avoid defects like cracks, wrinkles, and non-uniform thinning. Minimum bend radii, lubrication, and holding pressure all impact the quality of formed parts.
This chapter discusses sheet metal forming processes and equipment. It covers topics like shearing, bending, deep drawing, and other specialized forming techniques. Shearing is used to cut sheet metal blanks from larger sheets. Process parameters like punch and die shape, clearance, and speed affect shearing quality and forces. Bending involves plastic deformation by compression and tension forces. Minimum bend radii and springback compensation are discussed. Deep drawing uses a punch and die to form a sheet metal blank into a cup shape by stretching the metal. Factors like wrinkling, drawability, and blankholder forces are addressed.
The document discusses material properties relevant to metal forming processes. It notes that metals must have low yield strength and high ductility to be successfully formed. Temperature affects these properties, with ductility increasing and yield strength decreasing at higher temperatures. It also discusses independent variables like starting material and geometry that engineers control, and dependent variables like forces produced. The material behavior in forming is characterized by stress-strain curves and flow curves, which describe how properties change with deformation. The document provides information on determining and applying flow curves for different forming processes that occur at various temperature ranges, like cold, warm, and hot working.
Heat treatment involves heating metals or alloys to specific temperatures, holding for durations, and cooling at controlled rates. This controls microstructure and properties. Key processes include annealing, stress relieving, hardening, tempering, and carburizing. Annealing relieves stresses and strains, improves machinability and ductility. Normalizing refines grains and relieves stresses. Stress relieving reduces stresses without changing microstructure.
This document discusses welding metallurgy and the structure of fusion welds. It describes the different zones that make up a typical fusion welded joint, including the fusion zone, weld interface, heat affected zone, and base material. It explains how the microstructure varies across these zones due to melting and solidification processes during welding. Factors like welding parameters, heat input, and joint geometry are described as influencing weld pool shape and grain structure. The concept of thermal severity number is introduced as a way to assess cracking susceptibility based on total plate thickness.
This document provides an overview of blacksmithing and forging processes. It discusses the definition of forging as the controlled deformation of metal through pressure or impact. It also covers common forging materials, types of furnaces used to heat metal for forging, and hand tools used in blacksmithing like anvils and hammers. The document describes open die forging, impression die forging, and closed forging processes. It also lists and defines common forging operations like upsetting, drawing, setting down, and discusses defects that can occur.
This document discusses various pattern allowances that must be accounted for when designing casting patterns. It describes shrinkage allowance, which accounts for the contraction of metals as they cool from liquid to solid. It also mentions machining allowance to allow for removal of surface imperfections during machining. Draft allowance tapers the pattern for easy removal from the mold. Distortion allowance accounts for uneven shrinking that can warp irregularly shaped castings. Finally, shake allowance enlarges the pattern to compensate for the mold cavity expanding slightly when the pattern is rapped to help removal.
1) The document discusses various defects that can occur during steel ingot solidification such as pipe, columnar structure, blow holes, and segregation.
2) It provides remedies for preventing these defects, such as using a hot top feeder head to avoid pipe formation and soaking ingots to minimize segregation.
3) The document also covers the mechanisms of ingot solidification, describing how killed, rimmed, and semi-killed steels solidify into chill, columnar, and equiaxed zones within the ingot.
This document discusses sheet metal forming processes. It introduces various sheet metal forming methods like bending, stretching, deep drawing, and identifies common defects. The objectives are to describe sheet metal forming processes, discuss variables that affect formability, and emphasize defects and solutions. Various forming equipment, stresses involved, and classifications of sheet metal parts and processes are outlined over several pages.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in metal forming including:
1) Metal forming processes use plastic deformation to change the shape of metal workpieces using dies that exceed the metal's yield strength.
2) Material properties like low yield strength and high ductility are desirable and affected by temperature.
3) Processes are classified by the scale of deformation from bulk to sheet metal and include rolling, forging, extrusion, drawing, bending, and shearing.
4) Temperature, strain rate, and friction influence how metal flows during forming. Lubricants are used to reduce friction.
Metal forming processes involve plastic deformation of materials to shape them. The main bulk metal forming processes are forging, extrusion, and rolling. Forging involves compressing material between dies to impart the die shape. Extrusion uses a ram to force material through a die opening to shape its cross-section. Rolling reduces thickness by compressing material between rotating rolls.
Rolling is a metal forming process where metal stock is passed through one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness and change the cross section of the metal. There are both hot and cold rolling processes. The metal is compressed between the rolls through frictional forces, changing the shape of the metal. Rolling processes can produce shapes like plates, sheets, rods, bars, pipes and rails. Rolling mills can have two, three, four or multiple rolls depending on the specific application and required shape. Rolling is used to mass produce metal products and form complex cross sections.
This document provides an overview of various joining processes, including fusion welding processes like gas welding, arc welding, TIG welding, MIG welding, plasma arc welding, and electron beam welding. It also discusses solid-state welding processes and resistance welding processes like spot welding and seam welding. Specific details are provided on plasma arc welding and resistance welding, including their principles, advantages, and applications.
The document discusses wire drawing and extrusion processes. Wire drawing is a metalworking process that reduces the cross-section of a wire by pulling it through a die. Extrusion is a process that forms materials by pushing them through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape. The document covers the assumptions, calculations, and parameters involved in wire drawing and extrusion like reduction in area, die angle, friction, and temperature. It also discusses different types of extrusion like direct, indirect, hydrostatic, and impact extrusion.
This document discusses various metal forming processes including extrusion and drawing. It provides details on:
1. Direct and indirect extrusion processes where a billet is forced through a die to reduce the cross-section. Extrusion can be hot or cold.
2. Drawing involves pulling a solid or hollow workpiece through a die to reduce or change its cross-section. It is commonly used to produce wire and tubes.
3. Key process parameters for extrusion and drawing like die design, lubrication, equipment used, and their effects on forming forces and product quality.
4. Examples of industrial applications of these processes to manufacture intricate parts, heat sinks, tubes, and fine wire are presented
Extrusion is a process where a billet is compressed and forced to flow through a die opening, acquiring the shape of the opening. In direct extrusion, the billet is pushed through the die by a ram. Indirect extrusion uses backward flow where the die is fixed to the ram and the billet flows in the opposite direction of ram movement. Extrusion can produce a variety of cross-sectional shapes from metals like aluminum, copper, steel, and plastics. Drawing is a similar process where a wire or rod is pulled rather than pushed through a die to reduce its cross-sectional area.
Metal forming processes are used to shape metals into useful products. Rolling is the most common forming process and accounts for around 90% of metal forming. It involves passing metal between rolls to reduce thickness or change cross-section. Forging uses dies and compression to shape hot or cold metal. Extrusion forces heated metal through a die to create shapes like rods, tubes and structural sections. Drawing pulls metal through a die to make wires, rods and tubes from both hot and cold workpieces. Deep drawing specifically makes cylindrical parts like cups from sheet metal.
There are two main types of die casting: hot-chamber and cold-chamber. In hot-chamber die casting, molten metal is kept inside the die casting machine, while in cold-chamber die casting the molten metal is poured into the machine from outside. Both processes use pressure to force molten metal into a die cavity to create parts. Cold-chamber die casting is more economical for large production quantities, provides good accuracy and surface finish, and requires less floor space than hot-chamber die casting.
Okay, here are the steps:
1) UTS of 5052-O aluminum = 280 MPa
2) Thickness, t = 1.8 mm
3) Cutting edge length, L = πD = π * 25 mm = 78.5 mm
4) Using the empirical formula:
Fmax = 7.0 * UTS * t * L
= 7.0 * 280 * 1.8 * 78.5
= 3,400 N
So the estimated maximum punch force required is 3,400 Newtons.
Metal forming processes include bulk deformation processes that significantly change the shape of metal parts through plastic deformation. The four main bulk deformation processes are rolling, forging, extrusion, and wire/bar drawing. Rolling involves passing metal between opposing rolls to reduce thickness or change cross-section. Forging involves compressing metal between dies to shape it. Extrusion uses a die to shape metal as it is squeezed through the die opening. Wire/bar drawing reduces diameter by pulling metal through a die. These processes are important for net-shape forming with little waste.
The document discusses various metal forming processes used to change the shape of metal workpieces through plastic deformation exceeding the metal's yield strength, including bulk deformation techniques like rolling, forging, and extrusion that involve significant shape changes with lower surface area to volume ratios, and sheet metalworking techniques like bending, drawing, and shearing that are performed on metal sheets or strips with higher surface area to volume ratios. Metal forming is an important manufacturing method that allows for net or near-net shape production, high production rates, profitability, and improved material properties.
1. Sheet metal forming operations include bending, stretching, deep drawing, and other processes where sheets are formed. Bending involves shaping a straight length into a curve and can be done using presses or rolls.
2. Deep drawing uses a die and punch to shape flat sheets into cup-shaped parts. Stretch forming clamps sheet edges and stretches the sheet over a die into the desired shape.
3. Successful forming requires considering the material properties, die and process parameters to avoid defects like cracks, wrinkles, and non-uniform thinning. Minimum bend radii, lubrication, and holding pressure all impact the quality of formed parts.
This chapter discusses sheet metal forming processes and equipment. It covers topics like shearing, bending, deep drawing, and other specialized forming techniques. Shearing is used to cut sheet metal blanks from larger sheets. Process parameters like punch and die shape, clearance, and speed affect shearing quality and forces. Bending involves plastic deformation by compression and tension forces. Minimum bend radii and springback compensation are discussed. Deep drawing uses a punch and die to form a sheet metal blank into a cup shape by stretching the metal. Factors like wrinkling, drawability, and blankholder forces are addressed.
The document discusses material properties relevant to metal forming processes. It notes that metals must have low yield strength and high ductility to be successfully formed. Temperature affects these properties, with ductility increasing and yield strength decreasing at higher temperatures. It also discusses independent variables like starting material and geometry that engineers control, and dependent variables like forces produced. The material behavior in forming is characterized by stress-strain curves and flow curves, which describe how properties change with deformation. The document provides information on determining and applying flow curves for different forming processes that occur at various temperature ranges, like cold, warm, and hot working.
Heat treatment involves heating metals or alloys to specific temperatures, holding for durations, and cooling at controlled rates. This controls microstructure and properties. Key processes include annealing, stress relieving, hardening, tempering, and carburizing. Annealing relieves stresses and strains, improves machinability and ductility. Normalizing refines grains and relieves stresses. Stress relieving reduces stresses without changing microstructure.
This document discusses welding metallurgy and the structure of fusion welds. It describes the different zones that make up a typical fusion welded joint, including the fusion zone, weld interface, heat affected zone, and base material. It explains how the microstructure varies across these zones due to melting and solidification processes during welding. Factors like welding parameters, heat input, and joint geometry are described as influencing weld pool shape and grain structure. The concept of thermal severity number is introduced as a way to assess cracking susceptibility based on total plate thickness.
This document provides an overview of blacksmithing and forging processes. It discusses the definition of forging as the controlled deformation of metal through pressure or impact. It also covers common forging materials, types of furnaces used to heat metal for forging, and hand tools used in blacksmithing like anvils and hammers. The document describes open die forging, impression die forging, and closed forging processes. It also lists and defines common forging operations like upsetting, drawing, setting down, and discusses defects that can occur.
This document discusses various pattern allowances that must be accounted for when designing casting patterns. It describes shrinkage allowance, which accounts for the contraction of metals as they cool from liquid to solid. It also mentions machining allowance to allow for removal of surface imperfections during machining. Draft allowance tapers the pattern for easy removal from the mold. Distortion allowance accounts for uneven shrinking that can warp irregularly shaped castings. Finally, shake allowance enlarges the pattern to compensate for the mold cavity expanding slightly when the pattern is rapped to help removal.
1) The document discusses various defects that can occur during steel ingot solidification such as pipe, columnar structure, blow holes, and segregation.
2) It provides remedies for preventing these defects, such as using a hot top feeder head to avoid pipe formation and soaking ingots to minimize segregation.
3) The document also covers the mechanisms of ingot solidification, describing how killed, rimmed, and semi-killed steels solidify into chill, columnar, and equiaxed zones within the ingot.
This document discusses sheet metal forming processes. It introduces various sheet metal forming methods like bending, stretching, deep drawing, and identifies common defects. The objectives are to describe sheet metal forming processes, discuss variables that affect formability, and emphasize defects and solutions. Various forming equipment, stresses involved, and classifications of sheet metal parts and processes are outlined over several pages.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in metal forming including:
1) Metal forming processes use plastic deformation to change the shape of metal workpieces using dies that exceed the metal's yield strength.
2) Material properties like low yield strength and high ductility are desirable and affected by temperature.
3) Processes are classified by the scale of deformation from bulk to sheet metal and include rolling, forging, extrusion, drawing, bending, and shearing.
4) Temperature, strain rate, and friction influence how metal flows during forming. Lubricants are used to reduce friction.
Metal forming processes involve plastic deformation of materials to shape them. The main bulk metal forming processes are forging, extrusion, and rolling. Forging involves compressing material between dies to impart the die shape. Extrusion uses a ram to force material through a die opening to shape its cross-section. Rolling reduces thickness by compressing material between rotating rolls.
Rolling is a metal forming process where metal stock is passed through one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness and change the cross section of the metal. There are both hot and cold rolling processes. The metal is compressed between the rolls through frictional forces, changing the shape of the metal. Rolling processes can produce shapes like plates, sheets, rods, bars, pipes and rails. Rolling mills can have two, three, four or multiple rolls depending on the specific application and required shape. Rolling is used to mass produce metal products and form complex cross sections.
This document provides an overview of various joining processes, including fusion welding processes like gas welding, arc welding, TIG welding, MIG welding, plasma arc welding, and electron beam welding. It also discusses solid-state welding processes and resistance welding processes like spot welding and seam welding. Specific details are provided on plasma arc welding and resistance welding, including their principles, advantages, and applications.
The document discusses wire drawing and extrusion processes. Wire drawing is a metalworking process that reduces the cross-section of a wire by pulling it through a die. Extrusion is a process that forms materials by pushing them through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape. The document covers the assumptions, calculations, and parameters involved in wire drawing and extrusion like reduction in area, die angle, friction, and temperature. It also discusses different types of extrusion like direct, indirect, hydrostatic, and impact extrusion.
This document discusses various metal forming processes including extrusion and drawing. It provides details on:
1. Direct and indirect extrusion processes where a billet is forced through a die to reduce the cross-section. Extrusion can be hot or cold.
2. Drawing involves pulling a solid or hollow workpiece through a die to reduce or change its cross-section. It is commonly used to produce wire and tubes.
3. Key process parameters for extrusion and drawing like die design, lubrication, equipment used, and their effects on forming forces and product quality.
4. Examples of industrial applications of these processes to manufacture intricate parts, heat sinks, tubes, and fine wire are presented
Extrusion is a process where a billet is compressed and forced to flow through a die opening, acquiring the shape of the opening. In direct extrusion, the billet is pushed through the die by a ram. Indirect extrusion uses backward flow where the die is fixed to the ram and the billet flows in the opposite direction of ram movement. Extrusion can produce a variety of cross-sectional shapes from metals like aluminum, copper, steel, and plastics. Drawing is a similar process where a wire or rod is pulled rather than pushed through a die to reduce its cross-sectional area.
This document discusses various metal forming processes including rolling, extrusion, forging, and drawing. It provides definitions and descriptions of each process. Rolling involves passing metal through rotating rolls to reduce thickness or shape it. Extrusion uses a press to force heated metal through a die to shape it. Forging shapes heated metal by compressing it with dies or hammers. Drawing shapes metal by pulling it through a die to reduce its cross-sectional area. Each process deforms metal through compression or tension to form parts.
Extrusion process presentation final (1).pptxAhmedWail2
The document discusses different types of extrusion processes including hot and cold extrusion, direct and indirect extrusion, and impact and hydrostatic extrusion. It explains the key factors that affect extrusion quality such as extrusion ratio, billet temperature, lubrication, and die design. Various extrusion products are also presented including tubes, hollow pipes, frames, and plastic objects.
This document provides an overview of the extrusion process. It defines extrusion as forcing a block of metal through a die under high pressure to reduce its cross-section. Extrusion can be hot or cold, direct or indirect. It discusses extrusion equipment, pressures, ratios, defects, and features like its cost-effectiveness and ability to produce complex cross-sections. Hydrostatic extrusion is also introduced, where the billet is surrounded by a fluid and forced through the die.
The document discusses various metal forming processes including extrusion, drawing, and wire drawing. Extrusion involves forcing metal through a die to form a part with constant cross-section. Drawing processes like wire drawing and tube drawing use dies to reduce the cross-section of rods or tubes. Indirect extrusion has advantages over direct extrusion like lower force requirements. Lubrication is important for extrusion and drawing. The maximum reduction per pass depends on factors like the material's yield strength.
This document discusses the extrusion process for producing multi-channel metal profiles. It describes extruding both a 2-channel and 11-channel copper profile. Extrusion is a process that forces metal to flow through a die opening, shaping it into the desired cross-section. Hot extrusion is used above the metal's recrystallization temperature, while cold extrusion provides better properties through work hardening. Direct extrusion forces metal forward, while indirect extrusion forces it in the opposite direction of the ram for lower forces. Die design, lubricants, metal flow patterns, defects, and common extrusion materials are also summarized.
This document discusses sheet metal forming processes. It describes that sheet metal is used widely in consumer and industrial products. The most common materials used are low-carbon steel, aluminum, and newer high-strength steels. The main forming processes discussed are shearing, die cutting, fine blanking, laser welding of tailor-welded blanks, and bending of sheets, plates and tubes. Shearing involves using a punch and die to cut the sheet metal and produces rough edges that can be further processed through additional operations like shaving.
Extrusion is a process where a block of metal is forced to flow through a die to reduce its cross-section. It is commonly used to produce cylindrical bars, tubes, or stock for other processes. Most metals require hot extrusion due to the large forces. Extrusion produces products with uniform properties and microstructure. Common extrusion defects include cracking, non-uniform deformation, and variations in grain structure. Extrusion equipment includes hydraulic presses in horizontal or vertical orientations and dies made of hardened tool steel. Process parameters like temperature, speed, and lubrication affect the required extrusion pressure.
Extrusion is a process where a billet is forced to flow through a die opening under high pressure to produce a part with a constant cross-section. Common materials extruded include metals like aluminum, copper, steel, and plastics. The extrusion process begins by heating the billet and placing it into an extrusion press where a ram pushes it through a die. Direct extrusion uses a stationary die and moving ram, while indirect extrusion has a movable die within a hollow ram. Extrusion can produce complex shapes and is used to manufacture parts like tubing, profiles, and frames.
Extrusion is a process where a billet is forced to flow through a die opening under high pressure to produce a part with a constant cross-section. Common materials extruded include aluminum, copper, steel, and plastics. Direct extrusion involves a stationary die and moving ram, while indirect extrusion uses a hollow ram and stationary billet. Process variables like temperature, speed, and die geometry influence the required forces. Extrusion allows for complex cross-sections with good surfaces and is efficient for high production volumes.
Extrusion is a process that uses pressure to force heated metal material through a die to create parts with a constant cross-section. There are two main types of extrusion: direct and indirect. Direct extrusion involves pushing the material through the die in the same direction as the ram movement, while indirect extrusion moves the material in the opposite direction of the ram. Extrusion can be performed hot or cold depending on the material, with hot extrusion allowing for more complex shapes from more readily extrudable metals like aluminum. Proper die material and lubrication are important for reducing friction during extrusion.
The document discusses various aspects of rolling processes. It defines rolling as a metalworking process that uses compressive forces exerted by rolls to reduce the thickness or change the cross-section of a workpiece. It describes the basic components of a rolling mill and the functions of rolls. It also discusses types of rolling like flat rolling, shape rolling, ring rolling, and thread rolling. Key differences between hot and cold rolling are explained along with advantages and disadvantages of each. Various products produced from rolling like plates, sheets, strips are also mentioned.
Roll forming is a metal forming process that uses pairs of rolls to progressively bend and form sheet metal, tubes, or strips into the desired cross-sectional shape. It is commonly used to form lightweight metals like aluminum into strong, rigid parts. The roll forming process strengthens the material and improves properties like hardness and corrosion resistance. Flat rolling is the most widely used metal forming process, accounting for around 90% of forming. It involves passing slabs, strips, sheets, or plates between rolls to reduce thickness and possibly increase width. The workpiece is squeezed between the rolls, reducing thickness through compression. Friction plays an important role in drawing the workpiece into the roll gap for forming. High velocity hydroforming uses high-pressure
Roll forming is a metal forming process that uses pairs of rolls to progressively bend and form sheet metal, tubes, or strips into the desired cross-sectional shape. It is commonly used to form lightweight metals like aluminum into strong, rigid parts. The roll forming process strengthens the material and improves properties like hardness and corrosion resistance. Flat rolling is the most widely used metal forming process, accounting for around 90% of forming. It involves passing slabs, strips, sheets, or plates between rolls to reduce thickness and possibly increase width. The workpiece is squeezed between the rolls, reducing thickness through compression. Friction plays an important role in drawing the workpiece into the roll gap for forming. High velocity hydroforming uses high-pressure
Extrusion, Drawing, Forging and Sheetmetal working processesmulualemamar
This Material presents about metal forming processes from those it slides about bulk deformation and sheet metal working processes includes (extrusion, drawing, forging and sheet metal operations).
Extrusion is a process that uses pressure to force a billet through a die opening to create an object with a constant cross-section. Most metals are hot extruded due to the large forces required. Extrusion can produce complex shapes, especially for more readily extrudable metals like aluminum. Common extruded products include automotive and construction parts. Factors like temperature, pressure, and lubrication affect the extrusion process and properties of the final product. Defects can occur due to non-uniform deformation or temperatures that cause cracking.
Extrusion is a process that uses pressure to force a billet through a die opening to create an object with a constant cross-section. Most metals are hot extruded due to the large forces required. Extrusion can produce complex shapes, especially for more readily extrudable metals like aluminum. Common extrusion products include automotive and construction parts. Factors like temperature, pressure, and lubrication affect the extrusion process and properties of the final product. Defects can occur due to non-uniform deformation or temperatures that cause cracking.
The document discusses various aspects of extrusion, a manufacturing process where a block of metal is forced to flow through a die opening. It describes different types of extrusion like hot and cold, direct and indirect, lubricated and hydrostatic. It also discusses defects in extrusion and the drawing process which is similar but uses a pulling force. The key information provided includes how extrusion allows shaping of solid and hollow metal sections, the operating principles and classifications of extrusion, and factors that affect the extrusion force.
Advanced Manufacturing Processes PDF Full book by badebhauEr. Bade Bhausaheb
This document provides a syllabus for an advanced manufacturing processes course. The syllabus covers 6 units: 1) metal forming processes, 2) advanced welding, casting and forging, 3) advanced material processing techniques, 4) micro machining processes, 5) additive manufacturing processes, and 6) measurement techniques for micro machining. Some key processes discussed include roll forming, hydroforming, electromagnetic forming, friction stir welding, vacuum die casting, and additive manufacturing methods like powder bed fusion. Contact information is also provided.
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2. Extrusion and drawing involve, respectively, pushing or pulling a
material through a die basically for the purpose of reducing or
changing its cross-sectional area.
Metal Extrusion and Drawing
Extrusion and drawing have numerous applications in the
manufacture of continuous as well as discrete products from a wide
variety of metals and alloys.
In extrusion, a cylindrical billet is forced through a die in a manner
similar to squeezing toothpaste from a tube or extruding Play-Doh
,in various cross sections in a toy press. ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 2
3. Typical products made by extrusion are railings for sliding doors,
window frames, tubing having various cross sections, aluminum
ladder frames, and numerous structural and architectural shapes.
Extrusions can be cut into desired lengths, which then become
discrete parts, such as brackets, gears, and coat hangers
Extrusions and examples of products made by
sectioning off extrusions
Metal Extrusion
Commonly extruded
materials are aluminum,
copper, steel, magnesium,
and lead; other metals
Depending on the
ductility of the material,
extrusion is carried out
at room or elevated
temperatures. Extrusion
at room temperature
often is combined with
forging operations, in
which case it generally
is known as cold
extrusion
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 3
4. In drawing, the cross section of solid rod, wire, or tubing is reduced
or changed in shape by pulling it through a die. Drawn rods are used
for shafts, spindles, and small pistons and as the raw material for
fasteners (such as rivets, bolts, and screws). In addition to round
rods, various profiles can be drawn.
Drawing
The distinction between the terms rod and wire is somewhat
arbitrary, with rod taken to be larger in cross section than wire. In
industry, wire generally is defined as a rod that has been drawn
through a die at least once, or its diameter is small enough so that it
can be coiled.
Wire drawing involves smaller diameters than rod drawing, with
sizes down to 0.01 mm for magnet wire and even smaller for use in
very low current fuses.
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 4
5. Other Types of extrusion: (a) indirect; (b) hydrostatic; (c) lateral.
The Extrusion Process
There are three basic types of extrusion. In the most common process
(called direct or forward extrusion), a billet is placed in a chamber
(container) and forced through a die opening by a hydraulically
driven ram (pressing stem or punch),
The die opening may be round, or it may have various shapes, depending
on the desired profile.
The function of the dummy block shown in the figure is to protect the tip of
the pressing stem (punch), particularly in hot extrusion.
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 5
6. Indirect extrusion has the advantage of having no billet-container
friction, since there is no relative motion. Thus, indirect extrusion is
used on materials with very high friction, such as high strength steels.
In hydrostatic extrusion the billet is smaller in diameter than the
chamber (which is filled with a fluid), and the pressure is transmitted
to the fluid by a ram. The fluid pressure results in triaxial compressive
stresses acting on the workpiece and thus improved formability; also,
there is much less workpiece-container friction than in direct
extrusion.
A less common type of extrusion is lateral (or side) extrusion
Types of extrusion
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 6
7. Process variables in direct extrusion. The die angle, reduction in cross
section, extrusion speed, billet temperature, and lubrication all affect the
extrusion pressure.
the geometric variables in extrusion are the die angle, α, and the
ratio of the cross-sectional area of the billet to that of the extruded
product, A0/Af; called the extrusion ratio, R. Other variables are the
temperature of the billet, the speed at which the ram travels, and
the type of lubricant used.
Extrusion Force
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 7
8. Extrusion Force
The force required for extrusion depends on (a) the strength of the
billet material, (b) the extrusion ratio, (c) the friction between the
billet and the chamber and die surfaces, and (d) process variables,
such as the temperature of the billet and the speed of extrusion.
The extrusion force, F, can be
estimated from the formula
where k is the extrusion constant
(which is determined experimentally)
and Ao and Af are the billet and extruded
product areas, respectively.
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 8
Extrusion constant k for various
metals at different temperatures.
10. Types of metal flow in extruding with square dies. (a) Flow pattern obtained at low friction
or in indirect extrusion. (b) Pattern obtained with high friction at the billet–chamber
interfaces. (c) Pattern obtained at high friction or with cooling of the outer regions of the
billet in the chamber. This type of pattern, observed in metals whose strength increases
rapidly with decreasing temperature, leads to a defect known as pipe (or extrusion)
defect.
Metal Flow in Extrusion.
The metal flow pattern in extrusion, as in other forming processes, is important
because of its influence on the quality and the mechanical properties of the
extruded product.
typical flow patterns for the case of direct extrusion with square dies
(a 90° die angle)
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 10
11. Process Parameters
Because they have high ductility, wrought aluminum, capper; and
magnesium and their alloys, as well as steels and stainless steels,
are extruded with relative ease into numerous shapes.
In practice, extrusion ratios, R, usually range from about 10 to 100.
They may be higher for special applications (400 for softer
nonferrous metals) or lower for less ductile materials, although the
ratio usually has to be at least 4 to deform the material plastically
through the bulk of the workpiece
Extruded products usually are less than 7.5 m long because of the
difficulty in handling greater lengths, but they can be as long as 30 m.
Ram speeds range up to 0.5 m/s. Generally, lower speeds are
preferred for aluminum, magnesium, and copper, higher speeds for
steels, titanium, and refractory alloys. Dimensional tolerances in
extrusion are usually in the range from , and they
increase with increasing cross section.
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 11
12. The presence of a die angle causes a small portion of the end of the
billet to remain in the chamber after the operation has been
completed. This portion (called scrap or the butt end) subsequently
,is removed by cutting off the extrusion at the die exit and removing
the scrap from the chamber. Alternatively, another billet or a
graphite block may be placed in the chamber to extrude the piece
remaining from the previous extrusion.
Process Parameters
In coaxial extrusion, or cladding, coaxial billets are extruded
together provided that the strength and ductility of the two metals
are compatible.
An example is copper clad with silver. Stepped extrusions are
produced by extruding the billet partially in one die and then in one
or more larger dies
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 12
13. Hot Extrusion
For metals and alloys that do not have sufficient ductility at room
temperature, or in order to reduce the forces required, extrusion is
carried out at elevated temperatures
As in all other hot-working operations, hot extrusion has special
requirements because of the high operating temperatures. For
example, die wear can be excessive, and cooling of the surfaces of
the hot billet (in the cooler chamber) and the die can result in highly
nonuniform deformation. ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 13
14. Typical extrusion–die configurations: (a) die for nonferrous metals; (b) die
for ferrous metals; (c) die for a T-shaped extrusion made of hot-work die
steel and used with molten glass as a lubricant
To reduce cooling of the billet and to prolong die life, extrusion dies may be
preheated, as is done in hot-forging operations.
Hot Extrusion
Because the billet is hot, it develops an oxide film, unless it is heated in an inert-
atmosphere furnace. Oxide films can be abrasive and can affect the flow
pattern of the material. Their presence also results in an extruded product that
may be unacceptable when good surface finish is important. In order to avoid
the formation of oxide films on the hot extruded product, the dummy block
placed ahead of the ram is made a little smaller in diameter than the container.
As a result, a thin shell (skull) consisting mainly of the outer oxidized layer of
the billet is left in the container. The skull is removed later from the chamber
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 14
15. Extrusion of a seamless tube (a) using an internal mandrel that moves
independently of the ram. (An alternative arrangement has the mandrel integral
with the ram.) (b) using a spider die to produce seamless tubing.
Die Design
Die design requires considerable experience
Tubing is extruded from a solid or hollow billet Wall thickness is
usually limited to 1 mm for aluminum, 3 mm for carbon steels, and 5
mm for stainless steels.
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 15
16. (a) An extruded 6063-T6 aluminum-ladder lock for aluminum extension ladders.
This part is 8 mm (5/16 in.) thick and is sawed from the extrusion (b) through (d)
Components of various dies for extruding intricate hollow shapes.
Hollow cross sections can be extruded by welding-chamber methods and
using various dies known as a porthole die, spider die, and bridge die
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 16
17. Poor and good examples of cross sections to be extruded. Note the
importance of eliminating sharp corners and of keeping section
thicknesses uniform..
Some guidelines for proper die design in extrusion are illustrated. Note
the (a) importance of symmetry of cross section, (b) avoidance of sharp
corners, and (c) avoidance of extreme changes in die dimensions within
the cross section.
Die Design
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 17
18. Die Materials
Die materials for hot extrusion usually are hot-worked die steels
Coatings (such as partially stabilized zirconia) may be applied to
the dies to extend their life. Partially stabilized zirconia dies also
are used for hot extrusion of tubes and rods.
However, they are not suitable for making dies for extruding
complex shapes, because of the severe stress gradients developed
in the die, which may lead to their premature failure.
Lubrication.
Lubrication is important in hot extrusion because of its effects on
(a) material flow during extrusion, (b) surface finish and integrity, (c) product
quality, and (d) extrusion forces.
For metals that have a tendency to stick to the container and the die, the billet
can be enclosed in a thin-walled container, or jacket, made of a softer and
lower strength metal, such as copper or mild steel. This procedure is called
jacketing or canning. In addition to acting as a low-friction interface, the jacket
prevents contamination of the billet by the environment. Also, if the billet
material is toxic or radioactive, the jacket prevents it from contaminating the
environment. ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 18
19. (a) Aluminum extrusion used as a heat sink for a printed circuit
board, (b) Extrusion die and extruded heat sinks.
Example of hot extrusion Manufacture of Aluminum Heat Sinks
Aluminum is used widely to transfer heat for both cooling and heating
applications because of its very high thermal conductivity. In fact, on a
weight-to-cost basis, no other material conducts heat as economically as
does aluminum.
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 19
20. Two examples of cold extrusion. Thin arrows
indicate the direction of metal flow during extrusion.
Cold extrusion is a general term that often denotes a combination
of operations, such as direct and indirect extrusion and forging
Cold Extrusion
The cold-extrusion process
uses slugs cut from cold-
finished or hot-rolled bars,
wire, or plates. Slugs that
are less than about 40 mm
in diameter are sheared
(cropped), and if
necessary, their ends are
squared off by processes
such as upsetting,
machining, or grinding
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 20
21. The force, F, in cold extrusion may be estimated from the formula
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 21
22. Cold extrusion has the following advantages
over hot extrusion:
Improved mechanical properties resulting from work hardening,
provided that the heat generated by plastic deformation and friction
does not recrystallize the extruded metal.
Good control of dimensional tolerances, reducing the need for
subsequent machining or finishing operations.
Improved surface finish, due partly to the absence of an oxide film
and provided that lubrication is effective.
Production rates and costs that are competitive with those of other
methods of producing the same part, such as machining. Some
machines are capable of producing more than 2000 parts per hour.
The magnitude of the stresses on the tooling in cold extrusion, however, is very
high (especially with steel and specialty-alloy work pieces), being on the order
of the hardness of the work piece material. The punch hardness usually ranges
between 60 and 65 HRC and the die hardness between 58 and 62 HRC.
Punches are a critical component, as they must possess not only sufficient
strength, but also sufficient toughness and resistance to wear and fatigue
failure.
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 22
23. Production steps for a cold-extruded
spark plug.
Cold-extruded Part
A cross section of the metal part
showing the grain-flow patternACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 23
24. Schematic illustration of the impact-extrusion process. The extruded parts are
stripped by the use of a stripper plate, because they tend to stick to the punch.
Impact Extrusion
Impact extrusion is similar to indirect extrusion, and the process
often is included in the cold-extrusion category. The punch
descends rapidly on the blank (slug), which is extruded backwards
Most nonferrous metals can be impact extruded in vertical presses and at
production rates as high as two parts per second.
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 24
25. Impact extrusion of a collapsible tube by the Hooker process. (b) and (c) Two
examples of products made by impact extrusion. These parts also may be made by
casting, forging, or machining. The choice of process depends on the materials
involved, part dimensions and wall thickness, and the properties desired. Economic
considerations also are important in final process selection.
Impact Extrusion
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 25
26. Depending on workpiece material condition and process variables,
extruded products can develop several types of defects that can
affect significantly their strength and product quality.
Extrusion Defects
There are three principal extrusion defects: surface cracking, pipe,
and internal cracking
Surface Cracking. If extrusion temperature, friction, or speed is too
high, surface temperatures can rise significantly, which may cause
surface cracking and tearing (fir tree cracking or speed cracking).
These cracks are intergranular (i.e., along the grain boundaries; and
usually are caused by hot shortness .
This situation can be avoided by lowering the billet temperature and the
extrusion speed.
Surface cracking also may occur at lower temperatures, where it has been
attributed to periodic sticking of the extruded product along the die
land. Because of the similarity in appearance to the surface of a bamboo
stem, it is known as a bamboo defect.
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 26
27. Pipe. The type of metal-flow pattern in extrusion tends to draw
surface oxides and impurities toward the center of the billet-much
like a funnel. This defect is known as pipe defect, tailpipe, or
fishtailing. As much as one-third of the length of the extruded
product may contain this type of defect and thus has to be cut off
as scrap.
Piping can be minimized by modifying the flow pattern to be more
uniform, such as by controlling friction and minimizing
temperature gradients. Another method is to machine the billet's
surface prior to extrusion, so that scale and surface impurities are
removed. These impurities also can be removed by the chemical
etching of the surface oxides prior to extrusion
Extrusion Defects
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 27
28. (a) Chevron cracking (central burst) in extruded round steel bars. Unless
the products are inspected, such internal defects may remain undetected
and later cause failure of the part in service. This defect can also develop
in the drawing of rod, of wire, and of tubes. (b) Schematic illustration of
rigid and plastic zones in extrusion. cracking increases if the two plastic
zones do not meet. Note that the plastic zone can be made larger either
by decreasing the die angle, by increasing the reduction in cross section,
or both.
Extrusion Defects
Internal Cracking. The center of the extruded product can develop
cracks, called center cracking, center-burst, arrowhead fracture, or
chevron cracking
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 28
29. General view of a 9-MN (1000-ton) hydraulic-extrusion press.
Extrusion Equipment
The basic equipment for extrusion is a horizontal hydraulic press. These presses
are suitable for extrusion because the stroke and speed of the operation can be
controlled, depending on the particular application. They are capable of applying
a constant force over a long stroke.
Hydraulic presses
with a ram-force
capacity as high as
120 MN have been
built, particularly
for hot extrusion of
large-diameter
billets.
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 29
30. Process variables in wire drawing. The die angle, the reduction in cross
sectional area per pass, the speed of drawing, the temperature, and the
lubrication all affect the drawing force, F.
The Drawing Process
In drawing, the cross section of a long rod or wire is reduced or
changed by pulling (hence the term drawing) it through a die called a
draw die
Thus, the difference between drawing and extrusion is that in extrusion the
material is pushed through a die, whereas in drawing it is pulled through it.
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 30
31. Drawing Force. The expression for the drawing force, F, under ideal
and frictionless conditions is similar to that for extrusion and is
given by the equation
Drawing Force
where YavII is the average true stress of the material in the die gap. Because more
work has to be done to overcome friction, the force increases with increasing
friction. Furthermore, because of the nonuniform deformation that occurs within
the die zone, additional energy (known as the redundant work of deformation) is
required. Although various equations have been developed to estimate the force
(described in greater detaill in advanced texts), a useful formula that includes
friction and the redundant work is
where α is the die angle in radians.
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 31
32. As can be seen from these equations, the drawing force increases as
reduction increases. However, there has to be a limit to the
magnitude of the force, because when the tensile stress reaches the
yield stress of the metal being drawn, the workpiece will simply yield
and, eventually, break. It can be shown that, ideally and without
friction, the maximum reduction in cross-sectional area per pass is
63%. Thus, a 10-mm-diameter rod can be reduced (at most) to a
diameter of 6.1 mm in one pass without failure.
The Drawing Process
It can be shown that, for a certain reduction in diameter and a certain
frictional condition, there is an optimum die angle at which the
drawing force is a minimum. Often, however, the die force is not the
major product quality concern, and the actual die angle may deviate
from this value.
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
Page 32
33. Examples of tube-drawing operations, with and without an internal mandrel.
Note that a variety of diameters and wall thicknesses can be produced from
the same initial tube stock (which has been made by other processes).
Drawing of Other Shapes
Various solid cross sections can be produced by drawing through dies with
different profiles. Proper die design and the proper selection of
reduction sequence
per pass require
considerable
experience to ensure
proper material flow
in the die, reduce
internal or external
defects, and improve
surface quality.
ACE 305- Dr Mohamed Elfarran
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34. Drawing Practice
As in all metalworking processes, successful drawing requires careful
selection of process parameters. In drawing, reductions in the cross-
sectional area per pass range up to about 45%.
Usually, the smaller the initial cross section, the smaller the reduction
per pass. Fine wires usually are drawn at 15 to 25% reduction per
pass and larger sizes at 20 to 45%.
Reductions of higher than 45% may result in lubricant breakdown,
leading to surface-finish deterioration. Although most drawing is done
at room temperature, drawing large solid or hollow sections can be
done at elevated temperatures in order to reduce forces
A light reduction (sizing pass) also may be taken on rods to improve their
surface finish and dimensional accuracy. However; because they basically
deform only the surface layers, light reductions usually produce highly
nonuniform deformation of the material and its microstructure. Consequently,
the properties of the material will vary with location within the cross section.
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35. rod or wire has to have its tip reduced in cross section in order to be
fed through the die opening and be pulled. This typically is done by
swaging the tip of the rod or wire; this operation is called pointing.
Drawing Practice
Drawing speeds depend on the material and on the reduction in cross-
sectional area. They may range from 1 to 2.5 m/s for heavy sections
to as much as 50 m/s for very fine wire, such as that used for
electromagnets. Because the product does not have sufficient time to
dissipate the heat generated, temperatures can rise substantially at
high drawing speeds and can have detrimental effects on product
quality.
Bundle Drawing
Although very fine wire can be produced by drawing, the cost can be
high. One method employed to increase productivity is to draw many
wires (a hundred or more) simultaneously as a bundle. The wires are
separated from one another by a suitable metallic material with
similar properties, but lower chemical resistance (so that it
subsequently can be leached out from the drawn-wire surfaces).
These wires are then used in applications such as electrically conductive plastics, heat-
resistant and electrically conductive textiles, filter media, radar camouflage, and medical
implants. The wires produced can be as small as 4 /l-m in diameter and can be made
from such materials as stainless steels, titanium, and high-temperature alloys.
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36. Terminology pertaining to a typical die used for drawing a round rod or wire.
Die Design
Die angles usually range from 6° to 15°. Note, however, that there are two angles
(entering and approach) in a typical die. The purpose of the bearing surface
( land) is to set the final diameter of the product (sizing) and to maintain this
diameter even with wear on the die-workpiece interface.
A set of dies is required
for profile drawing,
which involves various
stages of deformation to
produce the final profile.
The dies may be made in
one piece or (depending
on the complexity of the
cross-sectional profile)
with several segments
held together in a
retaining ring.
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37. Tungsten-carbide die insert in a steel casing.
Diamond dies used in drawing thin wire are
encased in a similar manner.
Die Materials
Die materials for drawing typically are tool steels and carbides. For hot
drawing, cast-steel dies are used because of their high resistance to
wear at elevated temperatures.
Diamond dies are used for
drawing fine wire with
diameters ranging from 2
µm to 1.5 mm. They may
be made from a single-
crystal diamond or in
polycrystalline form with
diamond particles in a metal
matrix (compacts). Because
of their very low tensile
strength and toughness,
carbide and diamond dies
typical1y are used as inserts
or nibs, which are
supported in a steel casing
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38. Lubrication
Proper lubrication is essential in drawing in order to improve die life
and product surface finish and to reduce drawing forces and
temperature. Lubrication is critical, particularly in tube drawing,
because of the difficulty of maintaining a sufficiently thick lubricant
film at the mandrel-tube interface. In the drawing of rods, a common
method of lubrication uses phosphate coatings.
The fol1owing are the basic methods of lubrication used in wire
drawing :
•Wet drawing, in which the dies and the rod are immersed completely in the
lubricant
•Dry drawing, in which the surface of the rod to be drawn is coated with a
lubricant by passing it through a box filled with the lubricant (stuffing box)
•Metal coating, in which the rod or wire is coated with a soft metal, such as
copper or tin, that acts as a solid lubricant
•Ultrasonic vibration of the dies and mandrels; in this process, vibrations
reduce forces, improve surface finish and die life, and allow larger reductions
per pass without failure.
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39. Drawing Defects and Residual Stresses
Typical defects in a drawn rod or wire are similar to those observed
in extrusion, especially center cracking
Another major type of defect in drawing is seams, which are longitudinal
scratches or folds in the material. Seams may open up during subsequent
forming operations (such as upsetting, heading, thread rolling, or bending of the
rod or wire), and they can cause serious quality-control problems. Various other
surface defects (such as scratches and die marks) also can result from improper
selection of the process parameters, poor lubrication, or poor die condition.
Because they undergo nonuniform deformation during drawing, cold-drawn
products usually have residual stresses
For light reductions, such as only a few percent, the longitudinal-surface
residual stresses are compressive (while the bulk is in tension) and fatigue life
is thus improved. Conversely, heavier reductions induce tensile surface
stresses (while the bulk is in compression). Residual stresses can be
significant in causing stress-corrosion cracking of the part over time. Moreover,
they cause the component to warp if a layer of material subsequently is
removed
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40. Cold drawing of an extruded channel on a draw bench to reduce its cross section.
Individual lengths of straight rods or of cross sections are drawn by this method.
Drawing Equipment
Although it is available in several designs, the equipment for
drawing is basically of two types: the draw bench and the bull block.
A draw bench contains a single die, and its design is similar to that
of a long, horizontal tension-testing machine
The pulling force is supplied by a chain drive or is activated hydraulically. Draw
benches are used for a single-length drawing of straight rods and tubes with
diameters larger than 20 mm and lengths up to 30 m. Machine capacities reach
1.3 MN of pulling force with a speed range of 6 to 60 m/min.
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41. An illustration of multistage wire drawing typically used to produce copper
wire for electrical wiring.
Drawing Equipment
Very long rods and wire (many kilometers) and wire of smaller cross sections,
usually less than 13 mm, are drawn by a rotating drum (bull block or capstan,
The tension in this setup provides the force required for drawing the wire,
usually through multiple dies (tandem drawing).
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