Accounting Made Simple

Note: This text is intended to be a high-level introduction to
accounting/bookkeeping. The author will make his best effort to keep the
information current and accurate; however, given the ever-changing nature of
industry regulations, no guarantee can be made as to the accuracy of the
information contained within.

Accounting Made Simple:
Accounting Explained in 100 Pages or Less
Mike Piper

Copyright © 2010 Mike Piper
No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed without express permission of the
author.
Simple Subjects, LLC
Chicago, Illinois 60626
ISBN: 978-0-9814542-2-1
www.ObliviousInvestor.com

Dedication
To you, the reader. Thank you.

Your Feedback is Appreciated.
As the author of this book, I’m very interested to hear your thoughts. If you
find the book helpful, please let me know! Alternatively, if you have any
suggestions of ways to make the book better, I’m eager to hear that too.
Finally, if you’re unsatisfied with your purchase for any reason, let me
know, and I’ll be happy to provide you with a refund of the current list price
of the book.
You can reach me at: mike@simplesubjects.com.
Best Regards,
Mike Piper

Table of Contents
1. Accounting Equation
Always true, no exceptions
Owners’ Equity is just a plug
My asset is your liability
2. Balance Sheet
It’s a snapshot
Assets
Liabilities
Equity
Current assets and liabilities vs. long-term assets and liabilities
Two-period balance sheets
3. Income Statement
Shows period of time rather than point in time
Gross Profit & Cost of Goods Sold
Operating Income vs. Net Income
4. Statement of Retained Earnings
Bridge between financial statements
Dividends are not an expense!
Retained Earnings: Not the same as cash
5. Cash Flow Statement
As opposed to income statement
Cash flow from operating activities

Cash flow from investing activities
Cash flow from financing activities
6. Financial Ratios
Liquidity ratios
Profitability ratios
Financial leverage ratios
Asset turnover ratios
Part Two Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP)
7. What is GAAP?
Who has to follow GAAP?
8. Debits and Credits
Double-entry system
The general ledger
T-accounts
The trial balance
9. Cash vs. Accrual
Cash method
Accrual method
Prepaid expenses
Unearned revenue
10. Other GAAP Concepts & Assumptions
Historical cost
Materiality
Money unit assumption
Entity assumption
Matching principle

11. Depreciation of Fixed Assets
Straight-line depreciation
Accumulated Depreciation
Salvage value
Gain or loss on sale
Other depreciation methods
Expensing immaterial purchases
12. Amortization of Intangible Assets
What are intangible assets?
Straight-line amortization
Legal life vs. expected useful life
13. Inventory & CoGS
Perpetual method
Periodic method
Calculating Cost of Goods Sold
FIFO vs. LIFO
Average cost method
Conclusion: The Humble Little Journal Entry

Introduction
Like the other books in the “…in 100 Pages or Less” series, this book is
designed to give you a basic understanding of the topic (in this case,
accounting), and do it as quickly as possible.
The only way to pack a topic such as accounting into just 100 pages is to be
as brief as possible. In other words, the goal is not to turn you into an expert.
With 100 pages, it’s simply not possible to provide a comprehensive
discussion of every topic in the field of accounting. (So if that’s what you’re
looking for, look for a different book.)
Now, having made that little disclaimer, I should state that I do think this
book will help you achieve a decent understanding of the most important
accounting concepts.

So What Exactly Is Accounting?
Some professors like to say that accounting is “the language of business.”
That definition has always been somewhat too abstract for my tastes. That
said, all those professors are right.
At its most fundamental level, accounting is the system of tracking the
income, expenses, assets, and debts of a business. When looked at with a
trained eye, a business’s accounting records truly tell the story of the business.
Using nothing but a business’s “books” (accounting records), you can learn
practically anything about a business. You can learn simple things such as
whether it’s growing or declining, healthy or in trouble. Or, if you look
closely, you can see things such as potential threats to the business’s health
that might not be apparent even to people within the company.

Where We’re Going
This book is broken down into two main parts:
1. A discussion of the most important financial statements used in
accounting: How to read each one, as well as what lessons you can draw
from each.
2. A look at accounting using Generally Accepted Accounting Principals
(GAAP), including:
Topics such as double-entry bookkeeping, debits and credits, and
the cash vs. accrual methods.
How to account for some of the more complicated types of
transactions, such as depreciation expense, gains or losses on sales
of property, inventory and cost of goods sold, and so on.
So let’s get started.

The Accounting Equation
Before you can create financial statements, you need to first understand the
single most fundamental concept of accounting: The Accounting Equation.
The Accounting Equation states that at all times, and without exceptions,
the following will be true:
Assets = Liabilities + Owners’ Equity
So what does that mean? Let’s take a look at the equation piece by piece.
Assets: All of the property owned by the company.
Liabilities: All of the debts that the company currently has outstanding to
lenders.

Owners’ Equity (a.k.a. Shareholders’ Equity):
The company’s ownership interest in its assets, after all debts have been
repaid.
Let’s use a simple, everyday example: homeownership.
EXAMPLE: Lisa owns a $300,000 home. To pay for the home, she took out
a mortgage, on which she still owes $230,000. Lisa would be said to have
$70,000 “equity in the home.” Applying the Accounting Equation to Lisa’s
situation would give us this:
$300,000 = $230,000 + $70,000
In other words, owners’ equity (the part that often confuses people) is just a
plug figure. It’s simply the leftover amount after paying off the
liabilities/debts. So while the Accounting Equation is conventionally written
as:
Assets = Liabilities + Owners’ Equity,
…it might be easier to think of it this way:
Assets – Liabilities = Owners’ Equity
If, one year later, Lisa had paid off $15,000 of her mortgage, her
accounting equation would now appear as follows:
$300,000 = $215,000 + $85,000

Because her liabilities have gone down by $15,000—and her assets have not
changed—her owner’s equity has, by default, increased by $15,000.

My Asset is Your Liability
One concept that can trip up accounting novices is the idea that a liability for
one person is, in fact, an asset for somebody else. For example, if you take out
a loan with your bank, the loan is clearly a liability for you. From the
perspective of your bank, however, the loan is an asset.
Similarly, the balance in your savings or checking account is, of course, an
asset (to you). For the bank, however, the balance is a liability. It’s money that
they owe you, as you’re allowed to demand full or partial payment of it at any
time.
Chapter 1 Simple Summary1
A company’s assets consist of all the property that the company owns.
A company’s liabilities consist of all the debt that the company owes to
lenders.
A company’s owners’ equity is equal to the owners’ interest in the
company’s assets, after paying back all the company’s debts.
The Accounting Equation is always written as follows:
However, it’s likely easier to think of the Accounting Equation this
way:
Assets – Liabilities = Owners’ Equity.

The Balance Sheet
A company’s balance sheet shows its financial situation at a given point in
time. It is, quite simply, a formal presentation of the Accounting Equation. As
you’d expect, the three sections of a balance sheet are assets, liabilities, and
owners’ equity.
Have a look at the example of a basic balance sheet on the following page.
Let’s go over what each of the accounts refers to.

Assets
Cash and Cash Equivalents: Balances in checking and savings accounts, as
well as any investments that will mature within 3 months or less.
Balance Sheet
Assets
Cash and Cash Equivalents $50,000
Inventory $110,000
Accounts Receivable $20,000
Property, Plant, and Equipment $300,000
Total Assets: $480,000
Liabilities
Accounts Payable $20,000
Notes Payable $270,000
Total Liabilities: $290,000
Owners’ Equity
Common Stock $50,000
Retained Earnings $140,000
Total Owners’ Equity $190,000
Total Liabilities + Owners’ Equity: $480,000
Inventory: Goods kept in stock, available for sale.
Accounts Receivable: Amounts due from customers for goods or services
that have already been delivered.
Property, Plant, and Equipment: Assets that cannot readily be converted

into cash—things such as computers, manufacturing equipment, vehicles,
furniture, etc.

Liabilities
Accounts Payable: Amounts due to suppliers for goods or services that have
already been received.
Notes Payable: Contractual obligations due to lenders (e.g., bank loans).

Owners’ Equity
Common Stock: Amounts invested by the owners of the company.
Retained Earnings: The sum of all net income over the life of the business
that has not been distributed to owners in the form of a dividend. (If this is
confusing at the moment, don’t worry. It will be explained in more detail in
Chapter 4, which discusses the Statement of Retained Earnings.)

Current vs. Long-Term
Often, the assets and liabilities on a balance sheet will be broken down into
current assets (or liabilities) and long-term assets (or liabilities). Current
assets are those that are expected to be converted into cash within 12 months
or less. Typical current assets include Accounts Receivable, Cash, and
Inventory.
Everything that isn’t a current asset is, by default, a long-term asset.
Sometimes, long-term assets are referred to, understandably, as non-current
assets. Property, Plant, and Equipment is a long-term asset account.
Current liabilities are those that will need to be paid off within 12 months
or less. The most common example of a current liability is Accounts Payable.
Notes Payable that are paid off over a period of time are split up on the
balance sheet so that the next 12 months’ payments are shown as a current
liability, while the remainder of the note is shown as a long-term liability.

Multiple-Period Balance Sheets
What you’ll often see when looking at published financial statements is a
balance sheet—such as the one on the following page—that has two columns.
One column shows the balances as of the end of the most recent accounting
period, and the adjoining column shows the balances as of the prior period-
end. This is done so that a reader can see how the financial position of the
company has changed over time.
For example, looking at the balance sheet on the following page we can
learn a few things about the health of the company. Overall, it appears that
things are going well. The company’s assets are increasing while its debt is
being paid down.
The only thing that might be of concern is an increase in Accounts
Receivable. An increase in Accounts Receivable could be indicative of
trouble with getting clients to pay on time. On the other hand, it’s also quite
possible that it’s simply the result of an increase in sales, and there’s nothing
to worry about.
Balance Sheet
Current Assets 12/31/11 12/31/10
Cash and Cash Equivalents $50,000 $30,000
Accounts Receivable $20,000 $5,000
Total Current Assets $70,000 $35,000
Non-Current Assets
Property, Plant, and Equipment $330,000 $330,000
Total Non-Current Assets: $330,000 $330,000
Total Assets $400,000 $365,000
Current Liabilities
Accounts Payable $20,000 $22,000
Current Portion of Note Payable $12,000 $12,000

Total Current Liabilities $32,000 $34,000
Long-Term Liabilities
Non-Current Portion of Note $250,000 $262,000
Total Long-Term Liabilities $250,000 $262,000
Total Liabilities: $282,000 $296,000
Owners’ Equity
Common Stock $30,000 $30,000
Retained Earnings $88,000 $39,000
Total Owners’ Equity $118,000 $69,000
Total Liabilities + Equity: $400,000 $365,000
Chapter 2 Simple Summary2
A company’s balance sheet shows its financial position at a given point
in time. Balance sheets are formatted in accordance with the
Accounting Equation:
Current assets are those that are expected to be converted into cash
within 12 months or less. Any asset that is not a current asset is a non-
current (a.k.a. long-term) asset by default.
Current liabilities are those that will need to be paid off within the next
12 months. By default, any liability that is not a current liability is a
long-term liability.

The Income Statement
A company’s income statement shows the company’s financial
performance over a period of time (usually one year). This is in contrast to the
balance sheet, which shows financial position at a point in time. A frequently
used analogy is that the balance sheet is like a photograph, while the income
statement is more akin to a video.
The income statement—sometimes referred to as a profit and loss (or P&L)
statement—is organized exactly how you’d expect. The first section details
the company’s revenues, while the second section details the company’s
expenses.
Income Statement
Revenue
Sales $300,000
Cost of Goods Sold (100,000)3
Gross Profit 200,000
Expenses
Rent 30,000
Salaries and Wages 80,000
Advertising 15,000
Insurance 10,000
Total Expenses 135,000
Net Income $65,000

Gross Profit and Cost of Goods Sold
Gross Profit refers to the sum of a company’s revenues, minus Cost of Goods
Sold. Cost of Goods Sold (CoGS) is the amount that the company paid for the
goods that it sold over the course of the period.
EXAMPLE: Laura runs a small business selling t-shirts with band logos on
them. At the beginning of the month, Laura ordered 100 t-shirts for $3 each.
By the end of the month, she had sold all of the t-shirts for a total of $800. For
the month, Laura’s Cost of Goods Sold is $300, and her Gross Profit is $500.4
EXAMPLE: Rich runs a small business preparing tax returns. All of his costs
are overhead—that is, each additional return he prepares adds nothing to his
total costs—so he has no Cost of Goods Sold. His Gross Profit is simply equal
to his revenues.

Operating Income vs. Net Income
Sometimes, you’ll see an income statement—like the one on the following
page—that separates “Operating Expenses” from “Non-Operating Expenses.”
Operating Expenses are the expenses related to the normal operation of the
business and are likely to be incurred in future periods as well. Things such as
rent, insurance premiums, and employees’ wages are typical Operating
Expenses.
Non-Operating Expenses are those that are unrelated to the regular
operation of the business and, as a result, are unlikely to be incurred again in
the following year. (A typical example of a Non-Operating Expense would be
a lawsuit.)
Income Statement
Revenue
Sales $450,000
Cost of Goods Sold (75,000)
Operating Expenses
Rent 45,000
Advertising 25,000
Insurance 10,000
Total Operating Expenses 200,000
Operating Income 175,000
Non-Operating Expenses
Lawsuit Settlement 120,000
Total Non-Operating Expenses 120,000

Net Income $55,000
The reasoning behind separating Operating Expenses from Non-Operating
Expenses is that it allows for the calculation of Operating Income. In theory,
Operating Income is a more meaningful number than Net Income, as it should
offer a better indicator of what the company’s income is going to look like in
future years.
The effect of this focus on Operating Income as opposed to Net Income has
been to cause many companies to make efforts to classify as many expenses
as possible as Non-Operating with the intention of making their Operating
Income look more impressive to investors. As a result of this “creative
accounting,” it’s become a bit of a debate which income figure is, in fact, the
better indicator of future success.
Chapter 3 Simple Summary
The income statement shows a company’s financial performance over a
period of time (usually a year).
A company’s Gross is equal to its revenues minus its Cost of Goods
Sold.
A company’s Operating Income is equal to its Gross Profit minus its
Operating Expenses—the expenses that have to do with the normal
operation of the business.
A company’s Net Income is equal to its Operating Income, minus any
Non-Operating Expenses.

The Statement of Retained Earnings
The statement of retained earnings is a very brief financial statement. (See
example on following page.) It has only one purpose, which, as you would
expect, is to detail the changes in a company’s retained earnings over a period
of time.
Again, retained earnings is the sum of all of a company’s undistributed
profits over the entire existence of the company. We say “undistributed” in
order to distinguish from profits that have been distributed to company
shareholders in the form of dividend payments.
EXAMPLE: ABC Construction is formed on January 1, 2011. At its date of
formation, it naturally has a Retained Earnings balance of zero (because it
hasn’t had any net income yet).
Over the course of 2011, ABC Construction’s net income is $50,000. In
December of the year, it pays a dividend of $20,000 to its shareholders. Its
retained earnings statement for the year would look as follows.
Statement of Retained Earnings
Retained Earnings, 1/1/2011 $0
Net Income 50,000
Dividends Paid to Shareholders (20,000)
Retained Earnings, 12/31/2011 $30,000
If, in 2012, ABC Construction’s net income was $70,000 and it again paid
a $20,000 dividend, its 2012 retained earnings statement would appear as
follows:
Net Income 70,000

Bridge Between Financial Statements
The statement of retained earnings functions much like a bridge between the
income statement and the balance sheet. It takes information from the income
statement, and it provides information to the balance sheet.
The final step of preparing an income statement is calculating the
company’s net income:
Income Statement
Revenue
Sales $240,000
Expenses
Rent 70,000
Net Income $90,000
Net income is then used in the statement of retained earnings to calculate the
end-of-year balance in Retained Earnings:
Retained Earnings, Beginning $40,000
Net Income 90,000
Retained Earnings, Ending $80,000
The ending Retained Earnings balance is then used to prepare the company’s
end-of-year balance sheet:

Balance Sheet
Assets
Inventory 80,000
Total Assets: 210,000
Liabilities
Accounts Payable 20,000
Total Liabilities: 20,000
Owners’ Equity
Common Stock 110,000
Retained Earnings 80,000
Total Owners’ Equity 190,000

Dividends: Not an Expense!
When first learning accounting, many people are tempted to classify dividend
payments as an expense. It’s true, they do look a lot like an expense in that
they are a cash payment made from the company to another party.
Unlike many other cash payments, however, dividends are simply a
distribution of profits (as opposed to expenses, which reduce profits).
Because they are not a part of the calculation of net income, dividend
payments do not show up on the income statement. Instead, they appear on
the statement of retained earnings.

Retained Earnings: It’s Not the Same as Cash
The definition of retained earnings—the sum of a company’s undistributed
profits over the entire existence of the company—makes it sound as if a
company’s Retained Earnings balance must be sitting around somewhere as
cash in a checking or savings account. In all likelihood, however, that isn’t the
case at all.
Just because a company hasn’t distributed its profits to its owners doesn’t
mean it hasn’t already used them for something else. For instance, profits are
frequently reinvested in growing the company by purchasing more inventory
for sale or purchasing more equipment for production.
The statement of retained earnings details the changes in a company’s
retained earnings over a period of time.
The statement of retained earnings acts as a bridge between the income
statement and the balance sheet. It takes information from the income
statement, and it provides information to the balance sheet.
Dividend payments are not an expense. They are a distribution of
profits.
Retained earnings is not the same as cash. Often, a significant portion
of a company’s retained earnings is spent on attempts to grow the
company.

The Cash Flow Statement
The cash flow statement does exactly what it sounds like: It reports a
company’s cash inflows and outflows over an accounting period.

Cash Flow Statement vs. Income Statement
At first, it may sound as if a cash flow statement fulfills the same purpose as
an income statement. There are, however, some important differences
between the two.
First, there are often differences in timing between when an income or
expense item is recorded and when the cash actually comes in or goes out the
door. We’ll discuss this topic much more thoroughly in Chapter 9: Cash vs.
Accrual. For now, let’s just consider a brief example.
EXAMPLE: In September, XYZ Consulting performs marketing services for
a customer who does not pay until the beginning of October. In September,
this sale would be recorded as an increase in both Sales and Accounts
Receivable. (And the sale would show up on a September income statement.)
The cash, however, isn’t actually received until October, so the activity
would not appear on September’s cash flow statement.
The second major difference between the income statement and the cash
flow statement is that the cash flow statement includes several types of
transactions that are not included in the income statement.
EXAMPLE: XYZ Consulting takes out a loan with its bank. The loan will
not appear on the income statement, as the transaction is neither a revenue
item nor an expense item. It is simply an increase of an asset (Cash) and a
liability (Notes Payable). However, because it’s a cash inflow, the loan will
appear on the cash flow statement.
EXAMPLE: XYZ Consulting pays its shareholders a $30,000 dividend. As
discussed in Chapter 4, dividends are not an expense. Therefore, the dividend
will not appear on the income statement. It will, however, appear on the cash
flow statement as a cash outflow.

Categories of Cash Flow
On a cash flow statement (such as the example on page 39) all cash inflows or
outflows are separated into one of three categories:
1. Cash flow from operating activities,
2. Cash flow from investing activities, and
3. Cash flow from financing activities.

Cash Flow from Operating Activities
The concept of cash flow from operating activities is quite similar to that of
Operating Income. The goal is to measure the cash flow that is the result of
activities directly related to normal business operations (i.e., things that will
likely be repeated year after year).
Common items that are categorized as cash flow from operating activities
include:
Receipts from the sale of goods or services,
Payments made to suppliers,
Payments made to employees, and
Tax payments.

Cash Flow from Investing Activities
Cash flow from investing activities includes cash spent on—or received from
—investments in financial securities (stocks, bonds, etc.) as well as cash spent
on—or received from—capital assets (i.e., assets expected to last longer than
one year). Typical items in this category include:
Purchase or sale of property, plant, or equipment,
Purchase or sale of stocks or bonds, and
Interest or dividends received from investments.

Cash Flow from Financing Activities
Cash flow from financing activities includes cash inflows and outflows
relating to transactions with the company’s owners and creditors. Common
items that would fall in this category include:
Dividends paid to shareholders,
Cash flow related to taking out—or paying back—a loan, and
Cash received from investors when new shares of stock are issued.
Cash Flow Statement
Cash Flow from Operating Activities:
Cash receipts from customers $320,000
Cash paid to suppliers (50,000)
Cash paid to employees (40,000)
Income taxes paid (55,000)
Net Cash Flow From Operating Activities 175,000
Cash Flow from Investing Activities:
Cash spent on purchase of equipment (210,000)
Net Cash Flow From Investing Activities (210,000)
Cash Flow from Financing Activities:
Dividends paid to shareholders (25,000)
Cash received from issuing new shares 250,000
Net Cash Flow From Financing Activities 225,000
Net increase in cash: $190,000

The cash flow statement and the income statement differ in that they
report transactions at different times. (We’ll discuss this more
thoroughly in Chapter 9: Cash vs. Accrual.)
The cash flow statement also differs from the income statement in that
it shows many transactions that would not appear on the income
statement.
Cash flow from operating activities includes cash transactions that
occur as a result of normal business operations.
Cash flow from investing activities includes cash transactions relating
to a company’s investments in financial securities and cash transactions
relating to long-term assets such as property, plant, and equipment.
Cash flow from financing activities includes cash transactions between
the company and its owners or creditors.

Financial Ratios
Of course, now that you know how to read financial statements, a logical
next step would be to take a look at the different conclusions you can draw
from a company’s financials. For the most part, this work is done by
calculating and comparing several different ratios.

Liquidity Ratios
Liquidity ratios are used to determine how easily a company will be able to
meet its short-term financial obligations. Generally speaking, with liquidity
ratios, higher is better. The most frequently used liquidity ratio is known as
the current ratio:
A company’s current ratio serves to provide an assessment of the company’s
ability to pay off its current liabilities (liabilities due within a year or less)
using its current assets (cash and assets likely to be converted to cash within a
year or less).
A company’s quick ratio serves the same purpose as its current ratio: It
seeks to assess the company’s ability to pay off its current liabilities.
The difference between quick ratio and current ratio is that the calculation of
quick ratio excludes inventory balances. This is done in order to provide a
worst-case-scenario assessment: How well will the company be able to fulfill
its current liabilities if sales are slow (that is, if inventories are not converted
to cash)?
EXAMPLE: ABC Toys (see balance sheet on page 43) would calculate its
liquidity ratios as follows:

A current ratio of 1 tells us that ABC Toys’ current assets match its current
liabilities, meaning it shouldn’t have any trouble handling its financial
obligations over the next 12 months.
However, a quick ratio of only 0.5 indicates that ABC Toys will need to
maintain at least some level of sales in order to satisfy its liabilities.
Balance Sheet, ABC Toys
Assets
Inventory 100,000
Accounts Receivable 60,000
Property, Plant, and Equipment 300,000
Total Assets: 500,000
Liabilities
Accounts Payable 50,000
Income Tax Payable 150,000
Total Liabilities: 200,000
Owners’ Equity
Common Stock 160,000
Retained Earnings 140,000
Total Owners’ Equity 300,000

Profitability Ratios
While a company’s net income is certainly a valuable piece of information, it
doesn’t tell the whole story in terms of how profitable a company really is.
For example, Google’s net income is going to absolutely dwarf the net income
of your favorite local Italian restaurant. But the two businesses are of such
different sizes that the comparison is rather meaningless, right? That’s why
we use the two following ratios:
A company’s return on assets shows us a company’s profitability in
comparison to the company’s size (as measured by total assets). In other
words, return on assets seeks to answer the question, “How efficiently is this
company using its assets to generate profits?”
Return on equity is similar except that shareholders’ equity is used in place
of total assets. Return on equity asks, “How efficiently is this company using
its investors’ money to generate profits?”
By using return on assets or return on equity, you can actually make
meaningful comparisons between the profitability of two companies, even if
the companies are of drastically different sizes.
EXAMPLE: Using the balance sheet from page 43 and the income statement
below, we can calculate the following profitability ratios for ABC Toys:

Income Statement, ABC Toys
Revenue
Sales $300,000
Cost of Goods Sold (100,000)
Expenses
Rent 30,000
Net Income $90,000
A company’s gross profit margin shows what percentage of sales remains
after covering the cost of the sold inventory. This gross profit is then used to
cover overhead costs, with the remainder being the company’s net income.
EXAMPLE: Virginia runs a business selling cosmetics. Over the course of
the year, her total sales were $80,000, and her Cost of Goods Sold was
$20,000. Virginia’s gross profit margin for the year is 75%, calculated as
follows:

Gross profit margin is often used to make comparisons between companies
within an industry. For example, comparing the gross profit margin of two
different grocery stores can give you an idea of which one does a better job of
keeping inventory costs down.
Gross profit margin comparisons across different industries can be rather
meaningless. For instance, a grocery store is going to have a lower profit
margin than a software company, regardless of which company is run in a
more cost-effective manner.

Financial Leverage Ratios
Financial leverage ratios attempt to show to what extent a company has used
debt (as opposed to capital from investors) to finance its operations.
A company’s debt ratio shows what portion of a company’s assets has been
financed with debt.
A company’s debt-to-equity ratio shows the ratio of financing via debt to
financing via capital from investors.
The Pros and Cons of Financial Leverage
It’s obviously risky for a company to be very highly leveraged (that is,
financed largely with debt). There is, however, something to be gained from
using leverage. The more highly leveraged a company is, the greater its return
on equity will be for a given amount of net income. That may sound
confusing; let’s look at an example.
EXAMPLE: XYZ Software has $200 million of assets, $100 million of
liabilities, and $100 million of owners’ equity. XYZ’s net income for the year
is $15 million, giving them a return on equity of 15% ($15 million net income
divided by $100 million owners’ equity).
If, however, XYZ Software’s capital structure was more debt-dependent—

such that they had $150 million of liabilities and only $50 million of equity—
their return on equity would now be much greater. In fact, with the same net
income, XYZ would have a return on equity of 30% ($15 million net income
divided by $50 million owners’ equity), thereby offering the company’s
owners twice as great a return on their money.
In other words, when the company’s debt-to-equity ratio increased (from 1
in the first example to 3 in the second example), the company’s return on
equity increased as well, even though net income remained the same.
In short, the question of leverage is a question of balance. Being more highly
leveraged (i.e., more debt, less investment from shareholders) allows for a
greater return on the shareholders’ investment. On the other hand, financing a
company primarily with loans is obviously a risky way to run a business.

Asset Turnover Ratios
Asset turnover ratios seek to show how efficiently a company uses its assets.
The two most commonly used turnover ratios are inventory turnover and
accounts receivables turnover.
The calculation of inventory turnover shows how many times a company’s
inventory is sold and replaced over the course of a period. The “average
inventory” part of the equation is the average Inventory balance over the
period, calculated as follows:
Inventory period shows how long, on average, inventory is on hand before it
is sold.
A higher inventory turnover (and thus, a lower inventory period) shows that
the company’s inventory is selling quickly and is indicative that management
is doing a good job of stocking products that are in demand.
A company’s receivables turnover (calculated as credit sales over a period
divided by average Accounts Receivable over the period) shows how quickly
the company is collecting upon its Accounts Receivable.

Average collection period is exactly what it sounds like: the average length of
time that a receivable from a customer is outstanding prior to collection.
Obviously, higher receivables turnover and lower average collection period is
generally the goal. If a company’s average collection period steadily increases
from one year to the next, it could be an indication that the company needs to
address its policies in terms of when and to whom it extends credit when
making a sale.
Liquidity ratios show how easily a company will be able to meet its
short-term financial obligations. The two most frequently used liquidity
ratios are current ratio and quick ratio.
Profitability ratios seek to analyze how profitable a company is in
relation to its size. Return on assets and return on equity are the most
important profitability ratios.
Financial leverage ratios express to what extent a company is using
debt (instead of shareholder investment) to finance its operations.
The more leveraged a company is, the higher return on equity it will be
able to provide its shareholders. However, increasing debt financing
can dramatically increase the business’s risk level.
Asset turnover ratios seek to show how efficiently a company uses its
assets. Inventory turnover and receivables turnover are the most
important turnover ratios.

Generally Accepted Accounting
Principles (GAAP)

What is GAAP?
In the United States, Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) is
the name for the framework of accounting rules used in the preparation of
financial statements. GAAP is created by the Financial Accounting Standards
Board (FASB).
The goal of GAAP is to make it so that potential investors can compare
financial statements of various companies in order to determine which one(s)
they want to invest in, without having to worry that one company appears
more profitable on paper simply because it is using a different set of
accounting rules.

Who is Required to Follow GAAP?
All publicly traded companies are required by the Securities and Exchange
Commission to follow GAAP procedures when preparing their financial
statements. In addition, because of GAAP’s prevalence in the field of
accounting—and because of the resulting fact that accountants are trained
according to GAAP when they go through school—many companies follow
GAAP even when they are not required to do so.
Governmental entities are required to follow GAAP as well. That said,
there are a different set of GAAP guidelines (created by a different regulatory
body) for government organizations. So, while they are following GAAP,
their financial statements are quite different from those of public companies.
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) is the framework
of accounting rules and guidelines used in the preparation of financial
statements.
The Securities and Exchange Commission requires that all publicly
traded companies adhere by GAAP when preparing their financial
statement

Debits and Credits
Most people (without knowing it) use a system of accounting known as
single-entry accounting when they record transactions relating to their
checking or savings accounts. For each transaction, one entry is made (either
an increase or decrease in the balance of cash in the account).
Likely the single most important aspect of GAAP is the use of double-entry
accounting, and the accompanying system of debits and credits. With double-
entry accounting, each transaction results in two entries being made. (These
two entries collectively make up what is known as a “journal entry.”)
This is actually fairly intuitive when you think back to the accounting
equation:
Assets = Liabilities + Owners’ Equity.
If each transaction resulted in only one entry, the equation would no longer
balance. That’s why, with each transaction, entries will be recorded to two
accounts.
EXAMPLE: A company uses $40,000 cash to purchase a new piece of
equipment. In the journal entry to record this transaction, Cash will decrease
by $40,000 and Equipment will increase by $40,000. As a result, the “Assets”
side of the equation will have a net change of zero, and nothing changes at all
on the “Liabilities + Owners’ Equity” side of the equation.
-40,000 no change no change
+40,000
Alternatively, if the company had purchased the equipment with a loan, the
journal entry would be an increase to Equipment of $40,000 and an increase
to Notes Payable of $40,000. In this case, each side of the equation would
have increased by $40,000.

+40,000 +40,000 no change

So, What are Debits and Credits?
Debits and credits are simply the terms used for the two halves of each
transaction. That is, each of these two-entry transactions involves a debit and
a credit.
Now, if you’ve been using a bank account for any period of time, you
likely have an idea that debit means decrease while credit means increase.
That is, however, not exactly true. A debit (or credit) to an account may
increase it or decrease it, depending upon what type of account it is:
A debit entry will increase an asset account, and it will decrease a
liability or owners’ equity account.
A credit entry will decrease an asset account, and it will increase a
liability or owners’ equity account.
From the perspective of your bank, your checking account is a liability—that
is, it’s money that they owe you. Because it’s a liability, your bank credits the
account to increase the balance and debits the account to decrease the balance.
Let’s apply this system of debits and credits to our earlier example.
EXAMPLE: A company uses $40,000 cash to purchase a new piece of
equipment. Cash will decrease by $40,000 and Equipment will increase by
$40,000. To record this decrease to Cash (an asset account) we need to credit
Cash for $40,000. To record this increase to Equipment (an asset account), we
need to debit Equipment for $40,000.
This transaction could be recorded as a journal entry as follows:
DR. Equipment 40,000
CR. Cash 40,000
As you can see, when recording a journal entry, the account that is debited is
listed first, and the account that is credited is listed second, with an
indentation to the right. Also, debit is conventionally abbreviated as “DR” and
credit is abbreviated as “CR.” (Often, these abbreviations are omitted, and

credits are signified entirely by the fact that they are indented to the right.)
An easy way to keep everything straight is to think of “debit” as meaning
“left,” and “credit” as meaning “right.” In other words, debits increase
accounts on the left side of the accounting equation, and credits increase
accounts on the right side. Also, this helps you to remember that the debit half
of a journal entry is on the left, while the credit half is indented to the right.
Let’s take a look at a few more example transactions and see how they
would be recorded as journal entries.
EXAMPLE: Chris’ Construction takes out a $50,000 loan with a local bank.
Cash will increase by $50,000, and Notes Payable will increase by $50,000.
To increase Cash (an asset account), we will debit it. To increase Notes
Payable (a liability account), we will credit it.
DR. Cash 50,000
CR. Notes Payable 50,000
EXAMPLE: Last month, Chris’ Construction purchased $10,000 worth of
building supplies, using credit to do so. Building Supplies (asset) and
Accounts Payable (liability) each need to be increased by $10,000. To do so,
we’ll debit Building Supplies, and credit Accounts Payable.
DR. Building Supplies 10,000
CR. Accounts Payable 10,000
Eventually, Chris’s Construction will pay the vendor for the supplies. When
they do, we’ll need to decrease Accounts Payable and Cash by $10,000 each.
To decrease a liability, we debit it, and to decrease an asset, we credit it.
DR. Accounts Payable 10,000
CR. Cash 10,000

Revenue and Expense Accounts
So far, we’ve only discussed journal entries that deal exclusively with balance
sheet accounts. Naturally, journal entries need to be made for income
statement transactions as well.
For the most part, when making a journal entry to a revenue account, we
use a credit, and when making an entry to an expense account, we use a debit.
This makes sense when we consider that revenues increase owners’ equity
(and thus, like owners’ equity, should be increased with a credit) and that
expenses decrease owners’ equity (and therefore, unlike owners’ equity,
should be increased with a debit).
EXAMPLE: Darla’s Dresses writes a check for their monthly rent: $4,500.
We need to decrease Cash and increase Rent Expense.
DR. Rent Expense 4,500
CR. Cash 4,500
EXAMPLE: Connie, a software consultant, makes a sale for $10,000 and is
paid in cash. We’ll need to increase both Cash and Sales by $10,000 each.
DR. Cash 10,000
CR. Sales 10,000
Sometimes a transaction will require two journal entries.
EXAMPLE: Darla’s Dresses sells a wedding dress for $1,000 cash. Darla
had originally purchased the dress from a supplier for $450. We have to
increase Sales and Cash by $1,000 each. We also have to decrease inventory
by $450 and increase Cost of Goods Sold (an expense account) by $450.
DR. Cash 1,000
CR. Sales 1,000
DR. Cost of Goods Sold 450

The General Ledger
The general ledger is the place where all of a company’s journal entries get
recorded. Of course, hardly anybody uses an actual paper document for a
general ledger anymore. Instead, journal entries are entered into the
company’s accounting software, whether it’s a high-end customized program,
a more affordable program like QuickBooks, or even something as simple as
a series of Excel spreadsheets.
The general ledger is a company’s most important financial document, as it
is from the general ledger’s information that a company’s financial statements
are created.

T-Accounts
In many situations, it can be useful to look at all the activity that has occurred
in a single account over a given time period. The tool most frequently used to
provide this one-account view of activity is known as the “T-Account.” One
look at an example T-account and you’ll know where it gets its name:
The above T-account shows us that, over the period in question, Cash has
been debited for $400, $550, and $300, as well as credited for $200 and $950.
Often, a T-account will include the account’s beginning and ending
balances:
This T-account shows us that at the beginning of the period, Inventory had a
debit balance of $600. It was then debited for a total of $750 (250+500) and
credited for a total of $500 (200+300). As a result, Inventory had a debit
balance of $850 at the end of the period ($600 beginning balance, plus $250
net debit over the period).

The Trial Balance
A trial balance is simply a list indicating the balances of every single general
ledger account at a given point in time. The trial balance is typically prepared
at the end of a period, prior to preparing the primary financial statements.
The purpose of the trial balance is to check that debits—in total—are equal
to the total amount of credits. If debits do not equal credits, you know that an
erroneous journal entry must have been posted. While a trial balance is a
helpful check, it’s far from perfect, as there are numerous types of errors that
a trial balance doesn’t catch. (For example, a trial balance wouldn’t alert you
if the wrong asset account had been debited for a given transaction, as the
error wouldn’t throw off the total amount of debits.)
For every transaction, a journal entry must be recorded that includes
both a debit and a credit.
Debits increase asset accounts and decrease equity and liability
accounts.
Credits decrease asset accounts and increase equity and liability
accounts.
Debits increase expense accounts, while credits increase revenue
accounts.
The general ledger is the document in which a company’s journal
entries are recorded.
A T-account shows the activity in a particular account over a given
period.
A trial balance shows the balance in each account at a given point in
time. The purpose of a trial balance is to check that total debits equal
total credits.

Cash vs. Accrual
Individuals and most small businesses use a method of accounting known
as “cash accounting.” In order to be in accordance with GAAP, however,
businesses must use a method known as “accrual accounting.”

The Cash Method
Under the cash method of accounting, sales are recorded when cash is
received, and expenses are recorded when cash is sent out. It’s straightforward
and intuitive. The problem with the cash method, however, is that it doesn’t
always reflect the economic reality of a situation.
EXAMPLE: Pam runs a retail ice cream store. Her lease requires her to
prepay her rent for the next 3 months at the beginning of every quarter. For
example, in April, she is required to pay her rent for April, May, and June.
If Pam uses the cash method of accounting, her net income in April
will be substantially lower than her net income in May or June, even if her
sales and other expenses are exactly the same from month to month. If a
potential creditor was to look at her financial statements on a monthly basis,
the lender would get the impression that Pam’s profitability is subject to wild
fluctuations. This is, of course, a distortion of the reality.

The Accrual Method
Under the accrual method of accounting, revenue is recorded as soon as
services are provided or goods are delivered, regardless of when cash is
received. (Note: This is why we use an Accounts Receivable account.)
Similarly, under the accrual method of accounting, expenses are recognized
as soon as the company receives goods or services, regardless of when it
actually pays for them. (Accounts Payable is used to record these as-yet-
unpaid obligations.)
The goal of the accrual method is to fix the major shortcoming of the cash
method: Distortions of economic reality due to the frequent time lag between
a service being performed and the service being paid for.
EXAMPLE: Mario runs an electronics store. On the 5th of every month, he
pays his sales reps their commissions for sales made in the prior month. In
August, his sales reps earned total commissions of $93,000. If Mario uses the
accrual method of accounting, he must make the following entry at the end of
August:
Commissions Expense 93,000
Commissions Payable 93,000
Whenever an expense is recorded prior to its being paid for—such as in the
above entry—the journal entry is referred to as an “accrual,” hence, the
“accrual method.” The need for the above entry could be stated by saying
that, at the end of August, “Mario has to accrue for $93,000 of Commissions
Expense.”
Then, on the 5th of September, when he pays his reps for August, he must
make the following entry:
Commissions Payable 93,000
Cash 93,000
A few points are worthy of specific mention. First, because Mario uses the

accrual method, the expense is recorded when the services are performed,
regardless of when they are paid for. This ensures that any financial
statements for the month of August reflect the appropriate amount of
Commissions Expense for sales made during the month.
Second, after both entries have been made, the net effect is a debit to the
relevant expense account and a credit to Cash. (Note how this is exactly what
you’d expect for an entry recording an expense.)
Last point of note: Commissions Payable will have no net change after both
entries have been made. Its only purpose is to make sure that financial
statements prepared at the end of August would reflect that—at that particular
moment—an amount is owed to the sales reps.
Let’s run through a few more examples so you can get the hang of it.
EXAMPLE: Lindsey is a freelance writer. During February she writes a
series of ads for a local business and sends them a bill for the agreed-upon
fee: $600. Lindsey makes the following journal entry:
Accounts Receivable 600
Sales 600
When Lindsey receives payment, she will make the following entry:
Cash 600
Accounts Receivable 600
EXAMPLE: On January 1st, when Lindsey started her business, she took out
a 6-month, $3,000 loan with a local credit union. The terms of the loan were
that, rather than making payments over the course of the loan, she would
repay it all (along with $180 of interest) on July 1st.
Because Lindsey uses the accrual method, she must record the interest
expense over the life of the loan, rather than recording it all at the end when
she pays it off.
When Lindsey initially takes out the loan, she makes the following entry:
Cash 3,000
Notes Payable 3,000
Then, at the end of every month, Lindsey records 1/6th of the total interest

expense by making the following entry:
Interest Expense 30
Interest Payable 30
On July 1st, Lindsey pays off the loan, making the following entry:
Notes Payable 3,000
Interest Payable 180
Cash 3,180

Prepaid Expenses
So far, all of our examples have looked at scenarios in which the cash
exchange occurred after the goods/services were delivered. Naturally, there
are occasions in which the opposite situation arises.
Again, the goal of the accrual method is to record the revenues or expenses
in the period during which the real economic transaction occurs (as opposed
to the period in which cash is exchanged). Let’s revisit our earlier example of
Pam with the ice cream store.
EXAMPLE: Pam’s monthly rent is $1,500. However, Pam’s landlord—
Retail Rentals—requires that she prepay her rent for the next 3 months at the
beginning of every quarter. On April 1st, Pam writes a check for $4,500 (rent
for April, May, and June). She makes the following entry:
Prepaid Rent 4,500
Cash 4,500
In the above entry, Prepaid Rent is an asset account. Over the course of the
three months, the $4,500 will be eliminated as the expense is recorded. Assets
caused by the prepayment of an expense are known, quite reasonably, as
“prepaid expense accounts.”
Then, at the end of each month (April, May, and June), Pam will make the
following entry to record her rent expense for the period:
Rent Expense 1,500
Prepaid Rent 1,500
Again, by the end of the three months, Prepaid Rent will be back to zero, and
she will have recognized the proper amount of Rent Expense each month
($1,500). Of course, the process will start all over again on July 1st when Pam
prepays her rent for the third quarter of the year.

Unearned Revenue
From Pam’s perspective, the early rent payment created an asset account
(Prepaid Rent). Naturally, from the perspective of her landlord, the early
payment must have the opposite effect: It creates a liability balance known as
“unearned revenue.”
EXAMPLE: On April 1st, when Retail Rentals receives Pam’s check for
$4,500, they must set up an Unearned Rent liability account. Then, they will
record the revenue month by month.
On April 1st, Retail Rentals receives the check and makes the following
entry:
Cash 4,500
Unearned Rent 4,500
Then, at the end of each month, Retail Rentals will record the revenue by
making the following entry:
Unearned Rent 1,500
Rental Income 1,500
In order to be in accordance with GAAP, businesses must use the
accrual method of accounting (as opposed to the cash method).
The goal of the accrual method is to recognize revenue (or expense) in
the period in which the service is provided, regardless of when it is paid
for.

Other GAAP Concepts and
Assumptions
Again, the goal of GAAP is to ensure that companies’ financial statements
are prepared using a consistent set of rules and assumptions so that they can
be compared to those of another company in a meaningful way. In this
chapter we’ll examine a few of the assumptions that are used when preparing
GAAP-compliant financial statements.

Historical Cost
Under GAAP, assets are recorded at their historical cost (i.e., the amount paid
for them). This seems obvious, but there are times in which it would appear
reasonable for a company to report an asset at a value other than the amount
paid for it. For example, if a company has owned a piece of real estate for
several decades, reporting the piece of land at its historical cost may very
significantly understate the value of the land.
However, if GAAP allowed companies to use any other valuation method
—current market value for instance—it would introduce a great deal of
subjectivity into the process. (To use the example of real estate again:
Depending upon what method you use or who you ask, you could find several
different answers for the fair market value of a piece of real estate.) Instead,
GAAP usually requires that companies report assets using the most objective
value: the cost paid for them.

Materiality
Under GAAP, the materiality (or immateriality) of a transaction refers to the
impact that the transaction will have on the company’s financial statements. If
a mistake in recording a given transaction could cause a viewer of the
company’s financial statements to make a different decision than he or she
would make if the transaction were reported correctly, the transaction is said
to be “material.”
EXAMPLE: Martin’s business currently has $50,000 of current assets,
$20,000 of current liabilities, and owes $75,000 on a loan that will be due in 2
years. The loan is clearly material, as a misstatement of the amount, or an
exclusion of it from the company’s balance sheet would very likely lead a
potential investor (or creditor) to make a poor decision regarding investing in
(or lending money to) the company.
EXAMPLE: Carly runs a nicely profitable graphic design business. Her
monthly revenues are usually around $20,000, and her monthly expenses are
approximately $8,000. In August, Carly purchases $80 worth of office
supplies, but she forgets to record the purchase.
While Carly should make sure to record the purchase at some point, the
$80 expense is clearly immaterial. If creditors were looking at her financial
statements at the end of August, the $80 understatement of expenses would be
unlikely to cause them to make a different decision than they would if the
expense had been accurately recorded.

Monetary Unit Assumption
GAAP makes the assumption that the dollar is a stable measure of value. It’s
no secret that this is a faulty assumption due to inflation constantly changing
the real value of the dollar. The reason for using such a flawed assumption is
that the benefit gained from adjusting the value of assets on a regular basis to
reflect inflation would be far outweighed by the cost in both time and money
of requiring companies to do so.

Entity Assumption
For GAAP purposes, it’s assumed that a company is an entirely separate
entity from its owners. This concept is known as the “entity assumption” or
“entity concept.”
The most important ramification of the entity assumption is the
requirement for documenting transactions between a company and its owners.
For example, if you wholly own a business, any transfers from the business’s
bank account to your bank account need to be recorded, despite the fact that it
doesn’t exactly seem like a “transaction” in that you’re really just moving
around your own money.

Matching Principle
According to GAAP, the matching principle dictates that expenses must be
matched to the revenues that they help generate, and recorded in the same
period in which the revenues are recorded. This concept goes hand-in-hand
with the concept of accrual accounting. For example, it’s the matching
principle that dictates that a company’s utility expenses for the month of
March must be recorded in March (rather than in April, when they are likely
paid). The reasoning is that March’s utility expenses contribute to the
production of March’s revenues, so they must be recorded in March.
Similarly, it is the matching principle that dictates that if a company
purchases an asset that is expected to provide benefit to the company for
multiple accounting periods (a desk, for instance), the cost of the asset must
be spread out over the period for which it is expected to provide benefits. This
process is known as depreciation, and we’ll discuss it more thoroughly in
Chapter 11.
An asset’s historical cost is often quite different from its current market
value. However, due to its objective nature, historical cost is generally
used when reporting the value of assets under GAAP.
A transaction is said to be immaterial if a mistake in recording the
transaction would not result in a significant misstatement of the
company’s financial statements.
Under GAAP, in order to simplify accounting, currency is generally
assumed to have a stable value. This is known as the monetary unit
assumption.
For GAAP accounting, a business is assumed to be an entirely separate
entity from its owners. This is known as the entity concept or entity
assumption.
According to GAAP’s matching principle, expenses must be reported in
the same period as the revenues which they help to produce.

Depreciation of Fixed Assets
As mentioned briefly in the previous chapter, when a company buys an
asset that will probably last for greater than one year, the cost of that asset is
not counted as an immediate expense. Rather, the cost is spread out over
several years through a process known as depreciation.

Straight-Line Depreciation
The most basic form of depreciation is known as straight-line depreciation.
Using this method, the cost of the asset is spread out evenly over the expected
life of the asset.
EXAMPLE: Daniel spends $5,000 on a new piece of equipment for his
carpentry business. He expects the equipment to last for 5 years, by which
point it will likely be of no substantial value. Each year, $1,000 of the
equipment’s cost will be counted as an expense.
When Daniel first purchases the equipment, he would make the following
journal entry:
DR. Equipment 5,000
CR.Cash 5,000
Then, each year, Daniel would make the following entry to record
Depreciation Expense for the equipment:
Depreciation Expense 1,000
Accumulated Depreciation 1,000
Accumulated Depreciation is what’s known as a “contra account,” or more
specifically, a “contra-asset account.” Contra accounts are used to offset other
accounts. In this case, Accumulated Depreciation is used to offset Equipment.
At any given point, the net of the debit balance in Equipment, and the
credit balance in Accumulated Depreciation gives us the net Equipment
balance—sometimes referred to as “net book value.” In the example above,
after the first year of depreciation expense, we would say that Equipment has
a net book value of $4,000. ($5,000 original cost, minus $1,000 Accumulated
Depreciation.)
We make the credit entries to Accumulated Depreciation rather than
directly to Equipment so that we:

1. Have a record of how much the asset originally cost, and
2. Have a record of how much depreciation has been charged against the
asset already.
EXAMPLE (CONTINUED): Eventually, after 5 years, Accumulated
Depreciation will have a credit balance of 5,000 (the original cost of the
asset), and the asset will have a net book value of zero. When Daniel disposes
of the asset, he will make the following entry:
Equipment 5,000
After making this entry, there will no longer be any balance in Equipment or
Accumulated Depreciation.

Salvage Value
What if a business plans to use an asset for a few years, and then sell it before
it becomes entirely worthless? In these cases, we use what is called “salvage
value.” Salvage value (sometimes referred to as residual value) is the value
that the asset is expected to have after the planned number of years of use.
EXAMPLE: Lydia spends $11,000 on office furniture, which she plans to use
for the next ten years, after which she believes it will have a value of
approximately $2,000. The furniture’s original cost, minus its expected
salvage value is known as its depreciable cost—in this case, $9,000.
Each year, Lydia will record $900 of depreciation as follows:
Depreciation Expense 900
Accumulated Depreciation 900
After ten years, Accumulated Depreciation will have a $9,000 credit balance.
If, at that point, Lydia does in fact sell the furniture for $2,000, she’ll need to
record the inflow of cash, and write off the Office Furniture and Accumulated
Depreciation balances:
Cash 2,000
Office Furniture 11,000

Gain or Loss on Sale
Of course, it’s pretty unlikely that somebody can predict exactly what an
asset’s salvage value will be several years from the date she bought the asset.
When an asset is sold, if the amount of cash received is greater than the
asset’s net book value, a gain must be recorded on the sale. (Gains work like
revenue in that they have credit balances, and increase owners’ equity.) If,
however, the asset is sold for less than its net book value, a loss must be
recorded. (Losses work like expenses: They have debit balances, and they
decrease owners’ equity.)
Determining whether to make a gain entry or a loss entry is never too
difficult: Just figure out whether an additional debit or credit is needed to
make the journal entry balance.
EXAMPLE (CONTINUED): If, after ten years, Lydia had sold the furniture
for $3,000 rather than $2,000, she would record the transaction as follows:
Cash 3,000
Gain on Sale of Furniture 1,000
EXAMPLE (CONTINUED): If, however, Lydia had sold the furniture for
only $500, she would make the following entry:
Cash 500
Loss on Sale of Furniture 1,500

Other Depreciation Methods
In addition to straight-line, there are a handful of other (more complicated)
methods of depreciation that are also GAAP-approved. For example, the
double declining balance method consists of multiplying the remaining net
book value by a given percentage every year. The percentage used is equal to
double the percentage that would be used in the first year of straight-line
depreciation.
EXAMPLE: Randy purchases $10,000 of equipment, which he plans to
depreciate over five years. Using straight-line, Randy would be depreciating
20% of the value (100% ÷ five years) in the first year. Therefore, the double
declining balance method will use 40% depreciation every year (2 x 20%).
The depreciation for each of the first four years would be as follows:
EXAMPLE (CONTINUED): Because the equipment is being depreciated
over five years, Randy would record $1,296 (that is, 2,160 – 864) of
depreciation expense in the fifth year in order to reduce the asset’s net book
value to zero.
Another GAAP-accepted method of depreciation is the units of production
method. Under the units of production method, the rate at which an asset is
depreciated is not a function of time, but rather a function of how much the
asset is used.
EXAMPLE: Bruce runs a business making leather jackets. He spends
$50,000 on a piece of equipment that is expected to last through the
production of 5,000 jackets. Using the units of production method of

depreciation, Bruce would depreciate the equipment each period based upon
how many jackets were produced (at a rate of $10 depreciation per jacket).
If, in a given month, Bruce’s business used the equipment to produce 150
jackets, the following entry would be used to record depreciation:
Depreciation Expense 1,500

Immaterial Asset Purchases
The concept of materiality plays a big role in how some assets are accounted
for. For example, consider the case of a $15 wastebasket. Given the fact that a
wastebasket is almost certain to last for greater than one year, it should,
theoretically, be depreciated over its expected useful life.
However—in terms of the impact on the company’s financial statements—
the difference between depreciating the wastebasket and expensing the entire
cost right away is clearly negligible. The benefit of the additional accounting
accuracy is far outweighed by the hassle involved in making insignificant
depreciation journal entries year after year. As a result, assets of this nature
are generally expensed immediately upon purchase rather than depreciated
over multiple years. Such a purchase would ordinarily be recorded as follows:
Office Administrative Expense 15.00
Cash (or Accounts Payable) 15.00
Straight-line depreciation is the simplest depreciation method. Using
straight-line, an asset’s cost is depreciated over its expected useful life,
with an equal amount of depreciation being recorded each month.
Accumulated depreciation—a contra-asset account—is used to keep
track of how much depreciation has been recorded against an asset so
far.
An asset’s net book value is equal to its original cost, less the amount of
accumulated depreciation that has been recorded against the asset.
If an asset is sold for more than its net book value, a gain must be
recorded. If it’s sold for less than net book value, a loss is recorded.
Immaterial asset purchases tend to be expensed immediately rather than
being depreciated.

Amortization of Intangible Assets
Intangible assets are real, identifiable assets that are not physical objects.
Common intangible assets include patents, copyrights, and trademarks.

Amortization
Amortization is the process—very analogous to depreciation—in which an
intangible asset’s cost is spread out over the asset’s life. Generally, intangible
assets are amortized using the straight-line method over the shorter of:
The asset’s expected useful life, or
The asset’s legal life.
EXAMPLE: Kurt runs a business making components for wireless routers.
In 2011, he spends $60,000 obtaining a patent for a new method of production
that he has recently developed. The patent will expire in 2031.
Even though the patent’s legal life is 20 years, its useful life is likely to be
much shorter, as it’s a near certainty that this method will become obsolete in
well under 20 years, given the rapid rate of innovation in the technology
industry. As such, Kurt will amortize the patent over what he projects to be its
useful life: four years. Each year, the following entry will be made:
Amortization Expense 15,000
Accumulated Amortization 15,000
Amortization is the process in which an intangible asset’s cost is spread
out over the asset’s life.
The time period used for amortizing an intangible asset is generally the
shorter of the asset’s legal life or expected useful life.

Inventory and Cost of Goods Sold
Under GAAP, there are two primary methods of keeping track of inventory:
the perpetual method and the periodic method.

Perpetual Method of Inventory
Any business that keeps real-time information on inventory levels and that
tracks inventory on an item-by-item basis is using the perpetual method. For
example, retail locations that use barcodes and point-of-sale scanners are
utilizing the perpetual inventory method.
There are two main advantages to using the perpetual inventory system.
First, it allows a business to see exactly how much inventory they have on
hand at any given moment, thereby making it easier to know when to order
more. Second, it improves the accuracy of the company’s financial statements
because it allows very accurate recordkeeping as to the Cost of Goods Sold
over a given period. (CoGS will be calculated, quite simply, as the sum of the
costs of all of the particular items sold over the period.)
The primary disadvantage to using the perpetual method is the cost of
implementation.

Periodic Method of Inventory
The periodic method of inventory is a system in which inventory is counted at
regular intervals (at month-end, for instance). Using this method, a business
will know how much inventory it has at the beginning and end of every
period, but it won’t know precisely how much inventory is on hand in the
middle of an accounting period.
A second drawback of the periodic method is that the business won’t be
able to track inventory on an item-by-item basis, thereby requiring
assumptions to be made as to which particular items of inventory were sold.
(More on these assumptions later.)

Calculating CoGS under the Periodic Method of Inventory
When using the periodic method, Cost of Goods Sold is calculated using the
following equation:
Beginning
Inventory
+
Inventory
Purchases
-
Ending
Inventory
=
Cost of
Goods Sold
This equation makes perfect sense when you look at it piece by piece.
Beginning inventory, plus the amount of inventory purchased over the period
gives you the total amount of inventory that could have been sold (sometimes
known, understandably, as Cost of Goods Available for Sale). We then
assume that, if an item isn’t in inventory at the end of the period, it must have
been sold. (And conversely, if an item is in ending inventory, it obviously
wasn’t sold, hence the subtraction of the ending inventory balance when
calculating CoGS).
EXAMPLE: Corina has a business selling books on eBay. An inventory
count at the beginning of November shows that she has $800 worth of
inventory on hand. Over the month, she purchases another $2,400 worth of
books. Her inventory count at the end of November shows that she has $600
of inventory on hand.
Using the equation above, we learn that Corina’s Cost of Goods Sold for
November is $2,600, calculated as follows:
Beginning
Inventory
+ Purchases -
Ending
Inventory
=
Cost of
Goods Sold
800 + 2,400 - 600 = 2,600
Granted, this equation isn’t perfect. For instance, it doesn’t keep track of the
cost of inventory theft. Any stolen items will accidentally get bundled up into
CoGS, because:
1. They aren’t in inventory at the end of the period, and

2. There is no way to know which items were stolen as opposed to sold,
because inventory isn’t being tracked item-by-item.

Assumptions Used in Calculating CoGS under the Periodic
Method
Of course, the calculation of CoGS is a bit more complex out in the real
world. For example, if a business is dealing with changing per-unit inventory
costs, assumptions have to be made as to which ones were sold (the cheaper
units or the more expensive units).
EXAMPLE: Maggie has a business selling t-shirts online. She gets all of her
inventory from a single vendor. In the middle of April, the vendor raises its
prices from $3 per shirt to $3.50 per shirt. If Maggie sells 100 shirts during
April—and she has no way of knowing which of those shirts were purchased
at which price—should her CoGS be $300, $350, or somewhere in between?
The answer depends upon which inventory-valuation method is used. The
three most used methods are known as FIFO, LIFO, and Average Cost. Under
GAAP, a business can use any of the three.

First-In, First-Out (FIFO)
Under the “First-In, First-Out” method of calculating CoGS, we assume that
the oldest units of inventory are always sold first. So in the above example,
we’d assume that Maggie sold all of her $3 shirts before selling any of her
$3.50 shirts.

Last-In, First-Out (LIFO)
Under the “Last-In, First-Out” method, the opposite assumption is made. That
is, we assume that all of the newest inventory is sold before any older units of
inventory are sold. So, in the above example, we’d assume that Maggie sold
all of her $3.50 shirts before selling any of her $3 shirts.
EXAMPLE (CONTINUED): At the beginning of April, Maggie’s inventory
consisted of 50 shirts—all of which had been purchased at $3 per shirt. Over
the month, she purchased 100 shirts, 60 at $3 per shirt, and 40 at $3.50 per
shirt. In total, Maggie’s Goods Available for Sale for April consists of 110
shirts at $3 per shirt, and 40 shirts at $3.50 per shirt.
If Maggie were to use the FIFO method of calculating her CoGS for the
100 shirts she sold in April, her CoGS would be $300. (She had 110 shirts
that cost $3, and FIFO assumes that all of the older units are sold before any
newer units are sold.)
100 x 3 = 300
If Maggie were to use the LIFO method of calculating her CoGS for the
100 shirts she sold in April, her CoGS would be $320. (LIFO assumes that all
40 of the newer, $3.50 shirts would have been sold, and the other 60 must
have been $3 shirts.)
(40 x 3.5) + (60 x 3) = 320
It’s important to note that the two methods result not only in different
Cost of Goods Sold for the period, but in different ending inventory balances
as well.
Under FIFO—because we assumed that all 100 of the sold shirts were the
older, $3, shirts—it would be assumed that, at the end of April, her 50
remaining shirts would be made up of 10 shirts that were purchased at $3
each, and 40 that were purchased at $3.50 each. Grand total ending inventory

balance: $170.
In contrast, the LIFO method would assume that—because all of the newer
shirts were sold—the remaining shirts must be the older, $3 shirts. As such,
Maggie’s ending inventory balance under LIFO is $150.

Average Cost
The average cost method is just what it sounds like. It uses the beginning
inventory balance and the purchases over the period to determine an average
cost per unit. That average cost per unit is then used to determine both the
CoGS and the ending inventory balance.
Avg. Cost/Unit x Units Sold = Cost of Goods Sold
Avg. Cost/Unit x Units in End. Inv. = End. Inv. Balance
EXAMPLE (CONTINUED): Under the average cost method, Maggie’s
average cost per shirt for April is calculated as follows:
Beginning Inventory: 50 shirts ($3/shirt)
Purchases: 100 shirts (60 at $3/shirt and 40 at $3.50/shirt)
Her total units available for sale over the period is 150 shirts. Her total Cost
of Goods Available for Sale is $470 (110 shirts at $3 each and 40 at $3.50
each).
Maggie’s average cost per shirt = $470/150 = $3.13
Using an average cost/shirt of $3.13, we can calculate the following:
CoGS in April = $313 (100 shirts x $3.13/shirt)

Ending Inventory = $157 (50 shirts x $3.13/shirt)
The periodic method of inventory involves doing an inventory count at
the end of each period, then mathematically calculating Cost of Goods
Sold.
The perpetual method of inventory involves tracking each individual
item of inventory on a minute-to-minute basis. It can be expensive to
implement, but it improves and simplifies accounting.
FIFO (first-in, first-out) is the assumption that the oldest units of
inventory are sold before the newer units.
LIFO (last-in, first-out) is the opposite assumption: The newest units of
inventory are sold before older units are sold.
The average cost method is a formula for calculating CoGS and ending
inventory based upon the average cost per unit of inventory available
for sale over a given period.

The Humble Little Journal Entry
The goal of accounting is to provide people—both internal users
(managers, owners) and external users (creditors, investors)—with
information about a company’s finances. This information is provided in the
form of financial statements. These financial statements are compiled using
information found in the general ledger, which is, essentially, the collection of
all of a business’s journal entries.
In this way, we can see that it’s the humble little journal entry (and its
respective components: debits and credits) that provides the information upon
which decisions are made in the world of business. Tens of billions of dollars
change hands every day based ultimately upon the journal entries recorded by
accountants—and accounting software—around the world.
These journal entries are based, in turn, upon the framework provided by
the Accounting Equation and the double-entry accounting system that goes
along with it.
Meanwhile, it’s the guidelines provided by GAAP that make these journal
entries (and the financial statements they eventually make up) meaningful.
Because without the consistency of accounting provided for by GAAP,
making a worthwhile comparison between two companies’ financial
statements would prove impossible.

End Notes
1 Sample accounting problems for each chapter of this book are available at:
www.obliviousinvestor.com/example-accounting-problems. I suggest taking advantage of
them if you feel that your understanding of a topic could use some help.
2 Just a reminder: Sample accounting problems for each chapter of this book are available at:
www.obliviousinvestor.com/example-accounting-problems.
3 In accounting, negative numbers are indicated using parentheses.
4 If a company doesn’t sell all of its inventory over the course of the period, the Cost of Goods
Sold calculation becomes a little more involved. We’ll be covering such calculations in
Chapter 13.

Helpful Online Resources
www.ObliviousInvestor.com
The author’s blog. Includes a wide variety of articles regarding personal
finance, accounting, and taxation.
www.quickbooks.com
Run by Intuit, this program is an excellent bookkeeping resource.
www.nolo.com
The most well-known (and deservedly so) publisher of legal self-help
books.
www.fasb.org
The website of the Financial Accounting Standards Board, the
organization responsible for creating and updating GAAP.

Recommended Reading
QuickBooks for Dummies, by Stephen L. Nelson
QuickBooks: The Missing Manual, by Bonnie Biafore

Also by Mike Piper
Investing Made Simple: Investing in Index Funds Explained in 100 Pages or
Less
Oblivious Investing: Building Wealth by Ignoring the Noise
Surprisingly Simple: Independent Contractor, Sole Proprietor, and LLC Taxes
Explained in 100 Pages or Less, by Mike Piper
Surprisingly Simple: LLC vs. S-Corp vs. C-Corp Explained in 100 Pages or
Less, by Mike Piper
Taxes Made Simple: Income Taxes Explained in 100 Pages or Less, by Mike
Piper

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