A2 Realism
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Realism distinguishes between open and closed systems that can be studied in sociology. Open systems, like weather patterns or crime rates, are too complex to make precise predictions because the researcher cannot control or measure all variables. Closed systems, like laboratory experiments, allow the researcher to control all relevant variables and make precise predictions. Realists argue that sociology primarily studies open systems that are too complex to make exact predictions due to many uncontrolled variables that influence outcomes.
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3) Price fixing cartels are more likely to form when industries have weak regulation, communication between firms is good, and products are standardized, making coordination easier. However, cartels are unstable due to incentives for some firms to cheat and overproduce.
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Game theory is a branch of applied mathematics that analyzes strategic interactions between rational decision-makers. It was developed by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern in the 1940s. Game theory has applications in economics, military strategy, politics, and other domains involving conflict and cooperation between intelligent decision-makers. The document defines key concepts in game theory like Nash equilibrium, zero-sum games, prisoner's dilemma, and mixed strategies. It also discusses assumptions of game theory and provides examples of classic game theory models.
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Game theory is a framework for analyzing strategic decision-making situations involving multiple players with potentially conflicting objectives. A game describes interactions between players, including the strategies available to each player and how their payoffs are determined based on the strategies chosen. Equilibrium analysis seeks to identify combinations of strategies such that no player can benefit by unilaterally changing their strategy given what the other players choose.
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Socialization is the process by which individuals learn the norms, values, behaviors, and social skills needed to function in their society. Gender socialization refers specifically to how boys and girls are socialized differently according to societal expectations of masculinity and femininity. Children learn gender roles and identities through various socialization mechanisms including child-rearing practices that treat boys and girls differently, as well as institutions like education, media, religion, and language that reinforce traditional gender stereotypes. While socialization aims to integrate individuals into society, it can also promote the unequal treatment of women through norms and religious teachings that have historically justified female subordination.
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This document outlines the key differences between positivism and interpretivism research approaches. Positivism assumes objective social facts and influences on society, using quantitative data collection and aiming for objectivity. Interpretivism views reality as constructed by individual meanings and actions resulting from personal meanings rather than external forces, using qualitative data and focusing on subjective meaning. Positivism takes a macro approach seeking reliability through detached research, while interpretivism takes a micro approach developing rapport and emphasizing validity through unstructured interviews and observation.
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This document discusses oligopolies and game theory. It explains that when there are few dominant firms in a market, they can engage in practices like price fixing to restrict output and fix higher prices. This allows them to recognize their interdependence and act together to maximize joint profits. However, cartel agreements are often unstable as firms have an incentive to cheat and exceed their output quotas for higher individual profits. This prisoners' dilemma framework illustrates why cooperation is difficult even when it benefits all parties. Game theory models are useful for understanding interdependent pricing and other strategic decisions in oligopolistic markets.
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