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1. CRIMINOLOGY 2: THEORY OF CRIME CAUSATION
INTRODUCTION
Definition of terms:
Theory – is the explanation of something; is a contemplative and rational type of abstract or
generalizing thinking about a phenomenon, or the results of such thinking. The process of
contemplative and rational thinking often is associated with such processes like observational
study, research.
Crime – it is an act or omission punishable by law, forbidding or commanding it; an action or
omission that constitutes an offense that may be prosecuted by the state and is punishable by
law.
Causation - the action of causing something; the relationship between cause and effect;
causality.
Causality – a concept more applicable to the hard sciences. Does the appearance of X cause
effect Y? In a perfect relationship, the appearance of X would always cause the effect of Y. Each
and every time the relationship is seen.
Empirical Validity – this is the most important factor in evaluating theory, and means that the
theory has been supported by research evidence.
Ideology – a belief system and set of core values or philosophy. In a pure sense, an ideology
states or explains how things should be, and a theory explains how things actually are.
Internal Logical Consistency– A theory needs to be presented in a logical manner and to have
clearly stated propositions that agree with or do not contradict one another.
Macro – macro theories of criminal behavior explain the “big picture” of crime – crime across
the world or across a society. They attempt to answer why there are variations in group rates
of crime. Other authors have used the terms “epidemiology” or social structural theories.
Micro – Micro theories of criminal behavior focus on a small group of offenders or on an
individual crime. They attempt to answer why some individuals are more likely than others to
commit crime. Other authors have used the terms “individual conduct” or processual theories.
Necessary Condition – this means that X must be present to produce effect Y. If X is not
present Y will not occur.
Parsimony – this refers to how many propositions, steps or statements are involved. How
simple is the theory?
Policy implications – if the theory is empirically valid, what solutions are suggested.
Probabilistic Causality – a concept more applicable to the social sciences. X is more likely to
cause effect Y. Restated X tend to cause Y.
Scope – Refers to how much or how many types of crime or deviance the theory covers.
Soft Determinism – the view that human behavior is not wholly caused, determined, or
predictable by any set of biological, psychological or sociological forces but that these interact
with exercise of choice and will by individuals. Therefore, explaining or predicting human
behavior is difficult.
Sufficient Condition – each time X is present, effect Y will always occur.

2. Tautology – circular reasoning. If a theory states that greed causes people to commit crime and
then says we Jon is greedy because he committed a crime, it becomes impossible to subject the
theory to the scientific process. In this case, you would find that greed has been defined as
someone who commits a criminal act. The circle of reasoning never stops.
Testability – to be valid and ultimately useful, a theory must be able to be subjected to
scientific research. Theories may be untestable if they are tautological, propose causes that are
not measurable or are so open.
Theories of Criminal and Deviant Behavior – theories in this category attempt to explain
why an individual commits criminal or delinquent acts.
Theories of Law and Criminal Justice – Theories in this category attempt to explain how laws
are made and how the criminal justice system operates as a whole.
Criminal Justice System – is anti-crime machinery for the prevention and control of crime and
juvenile delinquency; an integrated apparatus that is concerned with the prevention,
prosecution, conviction, sentencing and correcting of criminals.
What is Theory?
Theory explains how some aspect of human behavior or performance is organized. It thus
enables us to make predictions about that behavior.
The components of theory are concepts (ideally well defined) and principles.
A concept is a symbolic representation of an actual thing - tree, chair, table, computer,
distance, etc.
Construct is the word for concepts with no physical referent - democracy, learning, freedom,
etc. Language enables conceptualization.
A principleexpresses the relationship between two or more concepts or constructs.
In the process of theory development, one derives principles based on ones
examining/questioning how things/concepts are related.
Concepts and principles serve two important functions:
1) They help us to understand or explain what is going on around us.
2) They help us predict future events (Can be causal or correlational)
Why theory is important?
1. Theory provides concepts to name what we observe and to explain relationships between
concepts. Theory allows us to explain what we see and to figure out how to bring about change.
Theory is a tool that enables us to identify a problem and to plan a means for altering the
situation.
2. Theory is to justify reimbursement to get funding and support - need to explain what is being
done and demonstrate that it works - theory and research
3. Theory is to enhance the growth of the professional area to identify a body of knowledge
with theories from both within and with out the area of distance learning. That body of
knowledge grows with theory and research. Theory guides research.
What is a theory vs hypothesis?

3. Hypothesis: What's the Difference? A hypothesis proposes a tentative explanation or
prediction. Their hypothesis may be proven true or false by testing and experimentation. A
theory, on the other hand, is a substantiated explanation for an occurrence.
Can you ever prove causation?
In order to prove causation we need a randomized experiment. We need to make random any
possible factor that could be associated, and thus cause or contribute to the effect, If we do have
a randomized experiment, we can prove causation.
Introduction To Criminological Theory
The scientific study of the causes of delinquency and crime has been historically guided by
theory. A good theory is said to provide a foundational lens through which to interpret and
understand the manifestation of a behavior. In the field of criminology, the theoretical lens has
been primarily guided by concepts germane to the fields of sociology, psychology, and biology,
and the behavior to be explained is typically behavior that violates the codified laws of our
society (i.e., crime and delinquency). Although isolated theories have provided empirical
insight into the important factors perceived and expected to explain delinquency and crime, no
single theory can adequately explain all types of crime and delinquency or all of the variation in
crime and delinquency. In response to the absence of a “magic bullet” theory, scholars have
begun to integrate theories in hopes of explaining a greater proportion of delinquency and
crime. Theoretical integration generally involves borrowing theoretical constructs from
competing theories and combining them into a single theory. Integrating theories within
criminology is particularly advantageous because it allows scholars to begin to understand the
behavior under study in a more complex, and potentially more complete, manner.
Steps in Criminological theory Building
1. A Correlation Is Observed.
2. Questions Are Raised about Causes.
3. Theory Is Proposed.
4. Theory-Based Understanding Is Achieved.
5. A Theory-Based Hypothesis Develops.
6. The Hypothesis is Tested.
7. Theory-Based Social Policy Results.
Akers and Sellers (2013) have established a set of criteria to judge criminological
theories:
1. logical consistency
2. scope
3. parsimony
4. testability
5. empirical validity
6. usefulness

4. Logical consistency is the basic building block of any theory. It refers to a theory's ability to
“make sense”.
Prepared by:
Crmgst. Jonathan E. Salac
Instructor