The document discusses the geology and evolution of Earth. It describes Earth's interior structure with a core, mantle, and crust. It explains tectonic plates, geological features like impact craters, and extinction events from impacts and climate change. It also summarizes the composition and evolution of Earth's atmosphere from early outgassing to today, including the role of greenhouse gases and life in transforming the atmosphere.
The document discusses the moons of the gas giants Jupiter and Saturn, focusing on Jupiter's large Galilean moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) and Saturn's moon Titan. It provides information about the surface conditions and geological features of these moons, including active volcanoes on Io, evidence that oceans may exist under the icy crusts of Europa and Ganymede, and liquid hydrocarbon seas on Titan. The document uses images from spacecraft like Galileo and Cassini to illustrate these characteristics and how they have been shaped by tidal interactions with the giant planets.
The document provides an overview of a geography lesson on the interior of the Earth. It discusses various sources of evidence for the Earth's internal structure, including theories of the planet's origin, density and pressure measurements, temperature observations, and analysis of seismic wave behavior. Seismology is identified as the primary source of information, with discussion of how P, S, and L waves change speed and behavior when passing through the core, mantle, and crust.
The document provides an overview of geology and various geological concepts through definitions and explanations. It discusses the structure of the Earth, including the crust, mantle, outer core and inner core. It then covers plate tectonics, the geological time scale, minerals, rocks including igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, faults, folds, coal formation and some key geological terms. Diagrams and images are provided to illustrate geological features and concepts.
Earth materials, internel structure of the earth, composition of the earth Jahangir Alam
The document discusses key concepts about earth materials including:
- The earth's crust is composed of three basic rock types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form from compacted sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to pre-existing rocks.
- Common rock-forming minerals include quartz, feldspars, micas, amphiboles, olivine, and calcite. These minerals are arranged in crystalline structures to form the three basic rock types.
- Weathering and erosion break down and transport rock materials over time in a cycle that is linked to tectonic plate movements and the formation of new
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH CRUST MINERALS AND ROCKSShahid Hussain
The document discusses the composition of the Earth's crust and defines minerals and rocks. It explains that minerals are naturally occurring solid inorganic substances with fixed chemical compositions and crystalline atomic structures, and that rocks are aggregates of minerals or organic materials. The three main rock types - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - are described in terms of their formation processes. The rock cycle is summarized as the continuous process by which rocks are created from magma, transformed by weathering and metamorphism, and eventually melted back down into magma.
What is Geochemical distribution, Geochemical distribution of elements and factors affecting, Why to Study, Types of elements on basis of Geochemical distribution of elements, General Distribution Table, Associated Refrences
The document discusses the moons of the gas giants Jupiter and Saturn, focusing on Jupiter's large Galilean moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) and Saturn's moon Titan. It provides information about the surface conditions and geological features of these moons, including active volcanoes on Io, evidence that oceans may exist under the icy crusts of Europa and Ganymede, and liquid hydrocarbon seas on Titan. The document uses images from spacecraft like Galileo and Cassini to illustrate these characteristics and how they have been shaped by tidal interactions with the giant planets.
The document provides an overview of a geography lesson on the interior of the Earth. It discusses various sources of evidence for the Earth's internal structure, including theories of the planet's origin, density and pressure measurements, temperature observations, and analysis of seismic wave behavior. Seismology is identified as the primary source of information, with discussion of how P, S, and L waves change speed and behavior when passing through the core, mantle, and crust.
The document provides an overview of geology and various geological concepts through definitions and explanations. It discusses the structure of the Earth, including the crust, mantle, outer core and inner core. It then covers plate tectonics, the geological time scale, minerals, rocks including igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, faults, folds, coal formation and some key geological terms. Diagrams and images are provided to illustrate geological features and concepts.
Earth materials, internel structure of the earth, composition of the earth Jahangir Alam
The document discusses key concepts about earth materials including:
- The earth's crust is composed of three basic rock types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form from compacted sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to pre-existing rocks.
- Common rock-forming minerals include quartz, feldspars, micas, amphiboles, olivine, and calcite. These minerals are arranged in crystalline structures to form the three basic rock types.
- Weathering and erosion break down and transport rock materials over time in a cycle that is linked to tectonic plate movements and the formation of new
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH CRUST MINERALS AND ROCKSShahid Hussain
The document discusses the composition of the Earth's crust and defines minerals and rocks. It explains that minerals are naturally occurring solid inorganic substances with fixed chemical compositions and crystalline atomic structures, and that rocks are aggregates of minerals or organic materials. The three main rock types - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - are described in terms of their formation processes. The rock cycle is summarized as the continuous process by which rocks are created from magma, transformed by weathering and metamorphism, and eventually melted back down into magma.
What is Geochemical distribution, Geochemical distribution of elements and factors affecting, Why to Study, Types of elements on basis of Geochemical distribution of elements, General Distribution Table, Associated Refrences
This document discusses the density, resistivity, susceptibility, and physical properties of common rocks. It defines density as mass divided by volume and lists the densities of various rock types such as basalt, granite, and limestone. Resistivity is the ability of a material to resist electric current and is measured in ohm meters. Factors like pore fluid, fractures, and clay content affect a rock's resistivity. Susceptibility measures how a material is affected by a magnetic field. Temperature, time, and rock type influence a rock's susceptibility. Physical properties described include luster, texture, shape, color, streak, weight, crystal form, and hardness. Hardness is measured using Mohs scale from talc to
The document discusses the structure of the Earth. It is made up of four main layers from outermost to innermost:
1. Crust - The solid outermost layer, thicker under continents and thinner under oceans, made of granite, basalt, or sedimentary rock.
2. Mantle - Below the crust, made of hot solid rock up to 2,900km thick.
3. Outer core - Below the mantle, very dense but liquid due to extreme heat, made of nickel and iron, 2,250km thick.
4. Inner core - Innermost layer, extremely hot but solid due to extreme pressure, made of nickel and iron, 1,200km thick.
Earth is a unique planet that can support life due to its distance from the sun, abundance of liquid water, and presence of oxygen. It has several layers, including an outer crust, mantle, and inner core. Plate tectonics cause the movement of continents and formation of geological features like mountains and ocean floors. Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere interact to sustain life through processes like the water cycle and rock cycle.
The document summarizes the main layers and divisions of the Earth based on their chemical composition and physical properties. It is divided into three main layers:
1. The crust, which is the outermost solid layer and varies in thickness between continental and oceanic crust.
2. The mantle, which makes up over 80% of the Earth's volume and can be divided into the upper, lower, and D'' transition zones based on seismic properties.
3. The core, which is divided into a solid inner core and liquid outer core, and makes up about 30% of the Earth's mass.
1) The document discusses the history, types, and formation processes of different types of rocks including igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
2) It describes how igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing igneous and sedimentary rocks through heat, pressure, and chemical processes.
3) Some of the oldest buildings made of stone discussed include the Great Pyramid of Giza constructed from limestone and granite blocks and the Parthenon temple built from marble.
Engineering Geology - The structure of the earth - Lecture SummaryAhmed Nassar
The document summarizes key concepts about the structure and layers of the Earth. It discusses that the main layers are the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the thinnest layer and is divided into tectonic plates that move via processes at plate boundaries. The mantle makes up most of the Earth's volume and is composed of hot, convecting rock. At the center is the core, with a solid inner core and liquid outer core that generates the Earth's magnetic field.
Geochemistry involves studying the chemical composition of Earth and other planets, as well as the chemical processes that govern rocks, water, and soils. It examines how chemical elements are distributed and move through different parts of Earth over time. Key techniques for geochemical analysis include electron probe microanalysis and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. Proper interpretation of geochemical data requires considering analytical uncertainty and discussing limitations with laboratory experts.
In this presentation we discuss cobalt crusts, its classification, Occurrence and Distribution, Formation, Texture, Mineralogy, Scope for future mining and exploration.
This document provides information on different types of rocks and methods of extracting rocks and minerals from the earth. It discusses igneous rocks which form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks which form through the compaction and cementation of sediments, and metamorphic rocks which form from changes to existing rocks through heat and pressure. It also describes surface mining techniques like open-pit mining and strip mining used to extract deposits near the earth's surface, as well as subsurface mining techniques like shaft mining used for deeper deposits. Factors that affect decisions around mineral extraction include the grade, size and value of deposits as well as costs of exploration, transportation and environmental impacts.
The document discusses the structure of the Earth, including minerals, rocks, and fossils. It provides information on:
- Minerals have distinct crystal structures and chemical compositions. They form through high heat/pressure or natural processes like evaporation.
- Rocks are composed of minerals and classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic based on their formation. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through erosion and compaction, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to pre-existing rocks.
- Fossils are preserved remains or traces of ancient plants and animals found in sedimentary rock or organic matter. They can be body fossils like bones or teeth,
This document provides a summary of earth materials including minerals, rocks, and geological processes.
It describes the basic components of minerals and how their physical properties like crystal form, luster, color, hardness, and cleavage can be used for identification. The main rock types - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - are introduced along with the rock cycle. Sedimentary rocks form through weathering, erosion, deposition and lithification. Igneous rocks form as magma cools and includes volcanic and plutonic examples. Metamorphic rocks are formed from other rocks through changes in temperature and pressure.
Prentice Hall Earth Science ch05 Weathering & ErosionTim Corner
This document discusses weathering and erosion. It defines weathering as the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces through mechanical or chemical processes. Mechanical weathering occurs via physical forces like frost wedging and does not alter the rock's composition. Chemical weathering alters the rock through chemical reactions with water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, living organisms, and acid rain. Erosion is the movement and transport of weathered rock by forces like wind, water and gravity. The Grand Canyon formed through erosion by the Colorado River over millions of years.
Planetesimal ejection describes how leftover debris from the formation of the planets was captured as moons or ended up in the asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, or Oort cloud. Asteroids and meteoroids are small rocky or metallic objects found primarily in the inner solar system, with asteroids larger than 100 meters and meteoroids smaller. They orbit near the plane of the solar system in regions like the asteroid belt. When these objects enter the Earth's atmosphere, they appear as meteors and some survive impact as meteorites. Larger impacts are rarer but can cause global effects like the extinction of dinosaurs.
The document discusses soil mechanics and provides information on different types of soils. It defines soil as being comprised of solids, liquids, and gases that form over long periods of weathering rock and organic matter. Soils can either remain in place or be transported by agents like water, wind, or glaciers. The major types of transported soils include glacial, alluvial, lacustrine, marine, aeolian, and colluvial soils. The document also describes various regional soil deposits in India like laterites, black cotton soil, and alluvial soils that are influenced by climate, topography, and geology.
This document provides an overview of geology and related topics. It discusses that geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition and physical processes. Geology helps various engineering fields including civil engineering by providing information about site conditions. Some key topics covered include minerals, rocks, soil classification, and the relationships between geology and civil engineering in areas like planning, design, and construction.
This document contains information about various geological and geomorphological concepts. It defines exfoliation as the stripping of curved rock plates from below due to mechanical weathering. It lists several secondary tectonic plates and notes that the thickness of the Earth's crust varies. It also discusses soil profiles, sea cliffs, types of weathering (physical and chemical), seismic zones in India, erosion features of rivers, and spheroidal weathering of rocks.
Geologi laut pak yusuf surachman kuliah geologi kelautan-1Jihad Brahmantyo
The document discusses the geology of marine geology course at the Faculty of Mineral Technology, Trisakti University in semester 2, 2002. It covers topics like understanding marine geology, structures and formations of the Earth, shapes and basins of oceans, evolution of ocean basins, tectonics, and stratigraphy. It specifically discusses structures and formations of the Earth, including concepts like seismic ray paths, magnetic fields of the Earth, and estimating the interior based on seismic wave propagation. It also discusses shapes of ocean basins, types of continental margins, sediments, and tectonic reconstructions of regions like the Celebes Sea from the Eocene to Holocene periods.
The document discusses the three main rock types - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. It describes the rock cycle which shows how the different rock types are interrelated through geological processes. Igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma, either below ground (intrusive) or on the surface (extrusive). Sedimentary rocks form through the weathering of existing rocks, erosion and deposition of sediments, and compaction and cementation over time. Metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of existing rocks deep underground under high pressures and temperatures.
The document describes the internal structure of the Earth, which is categorized into compositional and mechanical layers. The compositional layers are the crust, mantle, and core, distinguished based on their composition. The mechanical layers are the lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, and inner core, distinguished based on their rock properties and rigidity. The layers differ in thickness, density, temperature, and pressure, with conditions increasing with depth inward.
This document discusses the density, resistivity, susceptibility, and physical properties of common rocks. It defines density as mass divided by volume and lists the densities of various rock types such as basalt, granite, and limestone. Resistivity is the ability of a material to resist electric current and is measured in ohm meters. Factors like pore fluid, fractures, and clay content affect a rock's resistivity. Susceptibility measures how a material is affected by a magnetic field. Temperature, time, and rock type influence a rock's susceptibility. Physical properties described include luster, texture, shape, color, streak, weight, crystal form, and hardness. Hardness is measured using Mohs scale from talc to
The document discusses the structure of the Earth. It is made up of four main layers from outermost to innermost:
1. Crust - The solid outermost layer, thicker under continents and thinner under oceans, made of granite, basalt, or sedimentary rock.
2. Mantle - Below the crust, made of hot solid rock up to 2,900km thick.
3. Outer core - Below the mantle, very dense but liquid due to extreme heat, made of nickel and iron, 2,250km thick.
4. Inner core - Innermost layer, extremely hot but solid due to extreme pressure, made of nickel and iron, 1,200km thick.
Earth is a unique planet that can support life due to its distance from the sun, abundance of liquid water, and presence of oxygen. It has several layers, including an outer crust, mantle, and inner core. Plate tectonics cause the movement of continents and formation of geological features like mountains and ocean floors. Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere interact to sustain life through processes like the water cycle and rock cycle.
The document summarizes the main layers and divisions of the Earth based on their chemical composition and physical properties. It is divided into three main layers:
1. The crust, which is the outermost solid layer and varies in thickness between continental and oceanic crust.
2. The mantle, which makes up over 80% of the Earth's volume and can be divided into the upper, lower, and D'' transition zones based on seismic properties.
3. The core, which is divided into a solid inner core and liquid outer core, and makes up about 30% of the Earth's mass.
1) The document discusses the history, types, and formation processes of different types of rocks including igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
2) It describes how igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing igneous and sedimentary rocks through heat, pressure, and chemical processes.
3) Some of the oldest buildings made of stone discussed include the Great Pyramid of Giza constructed from limestone and granite blocks and the Parthenon temple built from marble.
Engineering Geology - The structure of the earth - Lecture SummaryAhmed Nassar
The document summarizes key concepts about the structure and layers of the Earth. It discusses that the main layers are the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the thinnest layer and is divided into tectonic plates that move via processes at plate boundaries. The mantle makes up most of the Earth's volume and is composed of hot, convecting rock. At the center is the core, with a solid inner core and liquid outer core that generates the Earth's magnetic field.
Geochemistry involves studying the chemical composition of Earth and other planets, as well as the chemical processes that govern rocks, water, and soils. It examines how chemical elements are distributed and move through different parts of Earth over time. Key techniques for geochemical analysis include electron probe microanalysis and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. Proper interpretation of geochemical data requires considering analytical uncertainty and discussing limitations with laboratory experts.
In this presentation we discuss cobalt crusts, its classification, Occurrence and Distribution, Formation, Texture, Mineralogy, Scope for future mining and exploration.
This document provides information on different types of rocks and methods of extracting rocks and minerals from the earth. It discusses igneous rocks which form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks which form through the compaction and cementation of sediments, and metamorphic rocks which form from changes to existing rocks through heat and pressure. It also describes surface mining techniques like open-pit mining and strip mining used to extract deposits near the earth's surface, as well as subsurface mining techniques like shaft mining used for deeper deposits. Factors that affect decisions around mineral extraction include the grade, size and value of deposits as well as costs of exploration, transportation and environmental impacts.
The document discusses the structure of the Earth, including minerals, rocks, and fossils. It provides information on:
- Minerals have distinct crystal structures and chemical compositions. They form through high heat/pressure or natural processes like evaporation.
- Rocks are composed of minerals and classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic based on their formation. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma, sedimentary rocks form through erosion and compaction, and metamorphic rocks form from changes to pre-existing rocks.
- Fossils are preserved remains or traces of ancient plants and animals found in sedimentary rock or organic matter. They can be body fossils like bones or teeth,
This document provides a summary of earth materials including minerals, rocks, and geological processes.
It describes the basic components of minerals and how their physical properties like crystal form, luster, color, hardness, and cleavage can be used for identification. The main rock types - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - are introduced along with the rock cycle. Sedimentary rocks form through weathering, erosion, deposition and lithification. Igneous rocks form as magma cools and includes volcanic and plutonic examples. Metamorphic rocks are formed from other rocks through changes in temperature and pressure.
Prentice Hall Earth Science ch05 Weathering & ErosionTim Corner
This document discusses weathering and erosion. It defines weathering as the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces through mechanical or chemical processes. Mechanical weathering occurs via physical forces like frost wedging and does not alter the rock's composition. Chemical weathering alters the rock through chemical reactions with water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, living organisms, and acid rain. Erosion is the movement and transport of weathered rock by forces like wind, water and gravity. The Grand Canyon formed through erosion by the Colorado River over millions of years.
Planetesimal ejection describes how leftover debris from the formation of the planets was captured as moons or ended up in the asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, or Oort cloud. Asteroids and meteoroids are small rocky or metallic objects found primarily in the inner solar system, with asteroids larger than 100 meters and meteoroids smaller. They orbit near the plane of the solar system in regions like the asteroid belt. When these objects enter the Earth's atmosphere, they appear as meteors and some survive impact as meteorites. Larger impacts are rarer but can cause global effects like the extinction of dinosaurs.
The document discusses soil mechanics and provides information on different types of soils. It defines soil as being comprised of solids, liquids, and gases that form over long periods of weathering rock and organic matter. Soils can either remain in place or be transported by agents like water, wind, or glaciers. The major types of transported soils include glacial, alluvial, lacustrine, marine, aeolian, and colluvial soils. The document also describes various regional soil deposits in India like laterites, black cotton soil, and alluvial soils that are influenced by climate, topography, and geology.
This document provides an overview of geology and related topics. It discusses that geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition and physical processes. Geology helps various engineering fields including civil engineering by providing information about site conditions. Some key topics covered include minerals, rocks, soil classification, and the relationships between geology and civil engineering in areas like planning, design, and construction.
This document contains information about various geological and geomorphological concepts. It defines exfoliation as the stripping of curved rock plates from below due to mechanical weathering. It lists several secondary tectonic plates and notes that the thickness of the Earth's crust varies. It also discusses soil profiles, sea cliffs, types of weathering (physical and chemical), seismic zones in India, erosion features of rivers, and spheroidal weathering of rocks.
Geologi laut pak yusuf surachman kuliah geologi kelautan-1Jihad Brahmantyo
The document discusses the geology of marine geology course at the Faculty of Mineral Technology, Trisakti University in semester 2, 2002. It covers topics like understanding marine geology, structures and formations of the Earth, shapes and basins of oceans, evolution of ocean basins, tectonics, and stratigraphy. It specifically discusses structures and formations of the Earth, including concepts like seismic ray paths, magnetic fields of the Earth, and estimating the interior based on seismic wave propagation. It also discusses shapes of ocean basins, types of continental margins, sediments, and tectonic reconstructions of regions like the Celebes Sea from the Eocene to Holocene periods.
The document discusses the three main rock types - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. It describes the rock cycle which shows how the different rock types are interrelated through geological processes. Igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma, either below ground (intrusive) or on the surface (extrusive). Sedimentary rocks form through the weathering of existing rocks, erosion and deposition of sediments, and compaction and cementation over time. Metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of existing rocks deep underground under high pressures and temperatures.
The document describes the internal structure of the Earth, which is categorized into compositional and mechanical layers. The compositional layers are the crust, mantle, and core, distinguished based on their composition. The mechanical layers are the lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, and inner core, distinguished based on their rock properties and rigidity. The layers differ in thickness, density, temperature, and pressure, with conditions increasing with depth inward.
Earth Interior - Chemical and Mechanical Modelsdwinter1
Convection currents in Earth's mantle driven by heat from the core cause the movement of tectonic plates. Denser, cooler material sinks and less dense, warmer material rises in a convection cycle. Earth is composed of layers with increasing density, temperature, and pressure towards the core. The crust and rigid upper mantle form tectonic plates that move due to convection in the soft asthenosphere below.
This document summarizes a chapter about planetary geology. It discusses:
- The interiors of terrestrial planets and how seismic waves reveal Earth's layered structure.
- Geological processes that shape planetary surfaces, like impact cratering, volcanism, tectonics, and erosion.
- How the amount of impact craters on a surface indicates its geological age.
- Evidence that water once flowed on Mars from features like dry riverbeds and rocks formed in water.
- Unique features of specific planets, like Venus' resurfaced crust and lack of plate tectonics on Venus.
- How plate tectonics shapes Earth's surface through seafloor spreading, subduction, and mountain formation
This document summarizes a chapter about planetary geology. It discusses:
- The interiors of terrestrial planets and how seismic waves reveal Earth's layered structure.
- Geological processes that shape planetary surfaces, like impact cratering, volcanism, tectonics, and erosion.
- How the amount of impact craters on a surface reveals its geological age.
- The unique geology of specific planets, including the Moon's maria, Mercury's shrinkage, and evidence that water flowed on ancient Mars.
- How plate tectonics continually shapes Earth's surface through seafloor spreading, subduction, and mountain building.
The internal structure of the Earth can be inferred from seismic data and is divided into layers. The crust is the topmost solid layer, varying in thickness and composition between continental and oceanic crust. Below is the mantle, which makes up over 80% of the Earth's volume and is semi-liquid. The mantle is separated from the core by the Mohorovicic discontinuity. The core is the innermost layer and is divided into a solid inner core and liquid outer core, both composed primarily of iron and nickel.
The document summarizes the structure and composition of the Earth's main layers. It discusses that the Earth has an inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust. The crust varies in thickness and composition, with continental crust being thicker than oceanic crust. The mantle, made of solid hot rock, transfers heat via conduction and convection. The core is dense metal, mostly iron, and produces Earth's magnetic field through convection in the liquid outer core. Scientists determine this structure through geophysical surveys, seismic data, and properties of meteorites.
The document discusses the different layers of the Earth. It is composed of four main layers: the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is the top layer that humans live on and is made of lighter materials like rock. Below the crust is the mantle, which is hotter and able to flow. Deeper still are the outer and inner cores, which are the hottest parts of the Earth with immense pressures that would crush anything entering them. The document provides details on the characteristics and compositions of each layer.
The document outlines the 4 step process of planetary formation:
1) Collision and accretion of cm-sized particles into km-sized objects
2) Physical collisions of km-sized objects forming 10-100 km objects
3) Gravitational accretion sweeping up smaller bodies to form protoplanets
4) Heating and impacts forming molten protoplanets that differentiate into layers.
Earth's internal heat comes from three main sources:
1) The accretion of dust and gas particles during the Earth's formation released gravitational potential energy and caused internal heating.
2) Radioactive decay of elements in the Earth's core and mantle, such as uranium and potassium, continues to generate heat.
3) Frictional heating from convection currents in the mantle also contributes to the Earth's internal heat. Seismic waves have allowed scientists to indirectly learn about the Earth's layered structure despite only drilling about 7 miles deep.
The document describes the different layers that make up the Earth, including the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. It provides details on the composition and characteristics of each layer, such as the crust being the outermost solid layer and the inner core being made of solid iron and nickel. It also discusses the lithosphere, which includes the crust and upper mantle, and the types of rocks that make up the different layers, such as basalt in the crust and iron and nickel in the outer core.
The document discusses the structure and composition of the Earth. It is divided into three main layers:
1. The crust is the outermost solid layer and varies in thickness between continental and oceanic crust.
2. Below the crust lies the mantle, which makes up over 80% of the Earth's volume and is semi-solid.
3. The innermost layer is the core, divided into a solid inner core and liquid outer core composed of iron and nickel. Seismic waves and volcanic materials provide evidence about the Earth's inaccessible interior.
Is ground solid enough to stand on. Authors: Virginia Evans, Ksenia Baranova/...slg1703
The document discusses the composition and structure of Earth's spheres - the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. It describes the lithosphere as the solid outer part consisting of the crust and upper mantle. It then discusses the composition of the atmosphere and its layers, as well as the composition and role of the hydrosphere in maintaining life and climate on Earth. It concludes by noting the importance of international cooperation to address pollution threatening the hydrosphere.
Review#6 earthquakes & other crustal activityLexume1
The document discusses the structure and composition of the Earth's crust, including continental and oceanic crust. It also covers crustal dynamics like faulting, folding, and earthquakes. Additionally, it summarizes plate tectonics theory, including evidence from matching rock formations and fossils on separated continents, and mechanisms of plate movement like seafloor spreading and subduction zones. Finally, it notes how plate tectonics explains phenomena like earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain building.
Internal Structure of The Earth
Physical Layering
Determining the Earth's Internal Structure
C. The Earth's Internal Layered Structure and Composition
D. VELOCITY AND DENSITY VARIATION WITHIN THE EARTH
The immense amount of heat energy released from gravitational energy and from the decay of radioactive elements melted the entire planet, and it is still cooling off today. Denser materials like iron (Fe) sank into the core of the Earth, while lighter silicates (Si), other oxygen (O) compounds, and water rose near the surface.
The earth is divided into four main layers: the inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust. The core is composed mostly of iron (Fe) and is so hot that the outer core is molten, with about 10% sulphur (S). The inner core is under such extreme pressure that it remains solid. Most of the Earth's mass is in the mantle, which is composed of iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and oxygen (O) silicate compounds. At over 1000 degrees C, the mantle is solid but can deform slowly in a plastic manner. The crust is much thinner than any of the other layers, and is composed of the least dense potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na) aluminum-silicate minerals. Being relatively cold, the crust is rocky and brittle, so it can fracture in earthquakes.
The document summarizes the internal structure and composition of the Earth. It describes how seismic waves provide evidence about the Earth's layers, including a solid crust and mantle, liquid outer core, and solid inner core. The mantle convection of tectonic plates helps explain observations of seafloor spreading, mountain and trench formation, and patterns of earthquakes at plate boundaries.
This document provides information about Earth's interior structure and composition. It is divided into three main layers: a thin crust, a thick mantle comprising most of Earth's volume, and an inner core. Each layer has distinct properties revealed through seismic wave analysis and drilling. The crust and upper mantle form the rigid lithosphere, underlain by a plastic asthenosphere and then a solid mesosphere before reaching the liquid outer core surrounding the inner solid core. Major seismic discontinuities at the crust-mantle boundary and core-mantle boundary were discovered in the early 20th century and provide evidence for Earth's layered internal structure.
The document summarizes the layers that make up Earth's interior. It discusses that Earth has a crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is divided into continental and oceanic crust, and the Mohorovicic discontinuity separates the crust from the mantle. The mantle is divided into an upper and lower mantle by the Gutenberg discontinuity. The outer core is liquid while the inner core is solid. Earth's magnetic field is generated by convection currents in the liquid outer core.
This document summarizes the differentiation of the Earth. It discusses how the Earth initially formed as a molten mass and over time separated into layers with the heavier materials sinking to the center to form the core. The two main theories for this differentiation are homogeneous and heterogeneous accretion. Evidence from the Moon supports the Earth differentiating into layers early in its formation history around 4.5 billion years ago. The Earth is now composed of concentric layers that decrease in density from the iron-nickel core, to the silicate mantle, and finally the crust at the surface.
13. Earth Structure and Rock Cycle_2.pptxJomarDeray1
The document describes the layers and structure of the Earth. It discusses the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is broken into tectonic plates that move due to convection currents in the mantle. The mantle is the largest layer and heat from the core drives convection currents that move the plates. The outer core is liquid while the inner core is solid due to extreme pressures.
The document summarizes key information about the atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Mars:
- Venus has a dense, 96% carbon dioxide atmosphere with a surface pressure of 90 bars and average temperature of 850°F, caused by a runaway greenhouse effect. Its clouds are composed of sulfuric acid.
- Earth has an atmosphere composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen with a pressure of 1 bar and average temperature of 59°F. It hosts water clouds.
- Mars has a thin, 95% carbon dioxide atmosphere with a surface pressure of 0.007 bars and average temperature of -67°F, caused by a runaway refrigerator effect that stripped it of gases over time. It can host clouds of
The document summarizes key information about the geology of Venus. It states that Venus' surface is only about 500 million years old, as evidenced by impact craters, yet erosion rates are very low. Notable surface features include pancake-shaped volcanoes, coronae, and tectonic ridges and cracks. Venus has a slow 243-day rotation period that results in low wind speeds and erosion. Its atmosphere is extremely hot and dense.
The document provides information about Earth's moon, Luna. It discusses Luna's interior structure, including its crust, mantle, and core. It also describes Luna's surface features such as impact craters, maria (large dark plains), and regolith (loose rock and soil). Additionally, it discusses Luna's origin from a giant impact event about 4.5 billion years ago and its surface ages, with the highlands being the oldest at 4.4 billion years. The document also summarizes the Earth-Moon system, particularly how the Moon causes Earth's tides and is tide-locked in its orbit.
Early astronomers discovered and described key facts about the shape and size of the Earth and the structure of the solar system:
- Aristotle discovered that the Earth is round in 350 BC based on observations of lunar eclipses and changes in stars viewed from different locations.
- Eratosthenes estimated the circumference of the Earth to be about 25,000 miles in 240 BC by comparing shadows cast at different locations.
- Ptolemy proposed the geocentric model in 140 AD to explain the apparent retrograde motion of planets based on their orbits around the Earth.
- Copernicus proposed the heliocentric model in 1543 AD, placing the Sun at the center of the solar system with planets in
The document discusses factors involved in estimating the number of technological civilizations that may exist among stars using the Drake Equation. It examines each variable in the equation - R* (rate of formation of suitable stars), fp (fraction with planets), ne (number of planets suitable for life), fl (fraction where life appears), fi (fraction where intelligent life emerges), fc (fraction emitting detectable signals), and L (length of time signals emitted). It provides estimates and considerations for each variable based on current astronomical and biological understandings.
The document discusses the birth of the universe through several key topics:
1) Olber's Paradox - The question of why the night sky is dark if the universe contains an infinite number of stars. Explanations include a finite age universe and the expansion of space stretching light wavelengths.
2) Hubble's Law - The observation that more distant galaxies are moving away faster, indicating an expanding universe.
3) The Big Bang Theory - Proposed to explain the expansion of the universe and supported by evidence like the cosmic microwave background radiation. It provides an explanation for how the universe began from an extremely dense and hot initial state.
Galaxies are organized into clusters and superclusters that are separated by immense voids, creating a vast foam-like structure known as the "cosmic web". The largest known structure is the Sloan Great Wall, which is nearly 1.5 billion light years in length. Dark matter seems to come in standard clumps of about 30 million solar masses and 300 parsecs across, with a temperature of about 10,000 K. The cosmological principle assumes the universe is uniform on large enough scales, both homogeneous meaning no preferred locations and isotropic meaning no preferred directions.
Active galaxies can be categorized into three main types: Seyfert galaxies, radio galaxies, and quasars. Seyfert galaxies are active spiral galaxies with non-stellar spectra. Radio galaxies are active elliptical galaxies that also have non-stellar spectra and are strong radio emitters. Quasars are the most luminous active galaxies known, far brighter than normal galaxies, with non-stellar spectra. Centaurus A is the closest active galaxy and provides a unique laboratory for studying these powerful objects, showing evidence of a past merger that fuels activity at its center.
The document discusses different methods for measuring distances to galaxies. The Cepheid variable method can be used for galaxies in our Local Group. The Tully-Fisher relation uses the correlation between luminosity and rotational velocity of spiral galaxies to estimate distances to more distant spirals. Galaxy clusters and superclusters like the Local Supercluster provide context on larger scales of structure in the universe.
The document discusses the discovery of the Milky Way galaxy. It describes how in the early 20th century, Shapley and Curtis debated whether spiral nebulae were inside or outside our galaxy. Hubble later proved with Cepheid variables that they were actually other galaxies. The Milky Way is now understood to be a barred spiral galaxy about 30,000 light years wide, with a bulge, disk containing spiral arms, and halo of globular clusters. It formed from a cloud of gas that contracted under gravity and began rotating to form the spiral structure seen today.
The document summarizes key concepts about high mass stars and binary systems from sections 22.1, 22.2, and 23.5 of the textbook. It notes that high mass stars (>10 solar masses) end their lives as Type II supernovae, sometimes gamma-ray bursters. Binary systems produce novae, Type Ia supernovae, x-ray binaries, and x-ray bursters. All stars enrich the interstellar medium with heavier elements through their evolution and deaths. The goal is to answer fundamental questions about the universe and our origins.
Typical stellar evolution proceeds through several stages:
1. Red Giant Branch: Stars expand and cool as hydrogen fuses to helium in a shell around the core.
2. Horizontal Giant Branch: A helium flash occurs, followed by helium fusing to carbon in the core while hydrogen fuses in a shell.
3. Asymptotic Giant Branch: Helium and hydrogen shells alternately fuse heavier elements, causing the star to further expand and cool before ejecting its outer layers as a planetary nebula.
The document discusses the distance ladder, which is an attempt to determine astronomical distances by using a series of methods that build on one another. Within the Solar System, distances are measured using radar ranging. Within the galaxy, distances are measured using stellar parallax, main sequence fitting, and properties of Cepheid variable stars. Further out in the universe, distances are measured using the Tully-Fisher relation, Type Ia supernovae, brightest cluster galaxies, and Hubble's law. The document aims to answer fundamental questions about what exists in the universe and how large it is.
The document discusses the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, which plots stars' spectral classifications and luminosity classes to show overall trends of stellar properties. It notes that spectral class indicates a star's temperature from hot (OBA) to cool (KM), while luminosity class reflects size from supergiants to dwarfs. The distribution of stars in the diagram relates their masses and lifetimes, with high-mass blue main sequence stars having short lives versus low-mass red main sequence stars with long lives. The diagram aims to understand what types of stars exist.
The document discusses the solar interior and surface features. It explains that nuclear fusion in the core powers the sun, generating energy through the p-p chain reaction of converting hydrogen to helium. It also describes the solar neutrino problem, where fewer neutrinos are detected than models predict. The interior has different zones - the core, radiative zone, and convection zone. Surface features include sunspots, the 11-year sunspot cycle, prominences, and filaments.
The document provides information about outer solar system objects including Trans-Neptunian objects, Centaurs, Kuiper Belt objects, asteroids, comets, and dwarf planets. It discusses their classification, composition, formation processes, and what they reveal about the early solar system. Images show various outer solar system bodies like Pluto, Eris, asteroids, and comets, helping to illustrate their characteristics and relative sizes.
The document discusses asteroids and meteorites. Asteroids are remnants of planetary formation in the solar system. They are classified based on composition and location in relation to gravitational resonances with Jupiter. Ceres is the largest asteroid and is now classified as a dwarf planet. Meteorites provide information about early solar system conditions. They are classified based on composition as iron, stony, or stony-iron meteorites. Carbonaceous chondrites contain organic compounds and water, indicating the early solar system environment allowed these to form. Meteorites can also originate from the Moon or Mars.
The document discusses ring systems of the gas giant planets. It explains that ring systems are shaped by processes like the Roche limit and shepherding moons. It then provides details on the ring systems of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Saturn's rings are the most extensive and are composed primarily of ice particles. The rings of the other planets are thinner and less is known about their compositions. Over time, ring systems evolve and may be temporary structures unless replenished.
The document discusses the gas giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. It describes how the conditions in the early solar system led to their formation and composition primarily of hydrogen and helium. It explains what gives each planet its distinctive color through the composition of their clouds and atmospheres. Key details about the interiors, atmospheres, and cloud formations of each planet are provided.
The document summarizes the formation of the solar system based on the nebular hypothesis. It describes how:
1) A giant cloud of dust and gas gravitationally contracted to form a solar nebula.
2) Condensation occurred within the solar nebula, with different materials condensing at different temperatures.
3) Accretion and differentiation led to the formation of planetesimals and eventually planets, with terrestrial planets like Earth forming near the sun and gas giants like Jupiter forming farther out where temperatures allowed hydrogen and helium to condense.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
1. Earth’s Geology
LACC: §7.2, 3, 4
• Understand Earth’s interior: core (inner and
outer), mantle, crust.
• Understand Earth’s geological features
• Understand Earth’s some of the Earth’s
extinction events.
An attempt to answer the “big question”: what is
out there?
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 1
2. Earth’s Interior
http://earth.unh.edu/esci402/docs/Earth%20Interior.jpg
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 2
3. Earth’s Interior
http://physics.fortlewis.edu/Astronomy/astronomy%20today/CHAISSON/AT307/HTML/AT30703.HTM
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 3
4. Earth’s Interior
Seismic waves travel at about 10 km/
sec and, from mapping of the timing and
type of wave around the globe, we are
able to map the interior of the Earth.
Changes in refraction of seismic waves
are due to sharp changes in the density
= discontinuities due to chemical
composition.
The result is that we know that the
interior of the Earth has 4 components:
• a thin crust of density 3.3 gm/cc
composed of metals, silicates (a
substance called basalt)
• a semi-solid mantle of density 3.5 to
5.5 gm/cc composed of olivine Fe
oxides
• a liquid outer core of density 9 to 11
gm/cc composed of molten Fe
• a solid inner core of density 17 gm/cc
composed of Fe and Ni.
http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast221/lectures/lec13.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 4
5. The Earth: Interior Heat
A cross-section of the Earth reveals....
a thin, hard crust ranging from 10 to
100 kilometers thick....
a donut-shaped mantle 2,900 kilometers
thick. Instead of dough, it consists of
viscous molten rock that flows very
slowly, on a geological time scale. "It
moves about as fast as your fingernails
grow," Marone explains....
a two-part core. "The inner part is
about the size of our moon," Marone
says, "and has a density of essentially
steel." The outer core surrounding it is
an ocean of liquid metal 2,300
kilometers thick.
the vast majority of the heat in Earth's interior—up to 90 percent
—is fueled by the decaying of radioactive isotopes like
Potassium 40, Uranium 238, 235, and Thorium 232....
http://www.physorg.com/news62952904.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 5
6. The Earth: Tectonic Plates
Earth is the largest terrestrial planet; therefore, it is
taking the longest to cool. It’s crust (Si, O, Fe, Al,
Mg; 3 g/cm3) is broken up into >12 sections
called tectonic plates which are floating on a
convecting mantle.
The interior is hot due to (accretion,
differentiation, and) radioactive decay.
Significant erosion keeps Earth’s surface young--
a few hundred million years old. (The oldest rocks
are 3.9 billion years old. All the planets formed
4.5 billion years ago.)
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 6
7. The Earth: Tectonic Plates
5:17
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QDqskltCixA
The Early Earth and Plate Tectonics
http://www.neiu.edu/~llsander/earthquakes.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 7
8. Hot Spots
...the Hawaiian Island
and the seamounts
that extend from
Hawaii to the Aleutian
trench show the
movement of the
Pacific plate as it
moved over the hot
spot. Radiometric
dating shows that the
volcanic activity
decreases in age
toward the island of
Hawaii, which is now
over the hot spot.
http://www.gasd.k12.pa.us/~dpompa/Mini%20Lecture.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 8
9. The Earth: Impact Craters
Current total
number of
confirmed impact
structures: 176
http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/CINameSort2.htm
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 9
10. The Earth: Arizona Impact
Photograph by David Roddy, United States Geological Survey.
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kiefer/Education/SSRG2-Craters/craterstructure.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 10
11. The Earth: Arizona Impact
Meteor Crater in Arizona is one of the best
known examples of an impact crater on Earth.
The crater is 1.2 kilometers (0.74 miles) in
diameter and 200 meters deep. It formed
approximately 49,000 years ago when an iron
meteorite that was roughly the size of a school
bus struck the Arizona desert east of what is
now Flagstaff.
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kiefer/Education/SSRG2-Craters/craterstructure.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 11
12. The Earth: Arizona Impact
In a blinding flash, a huge iron-nickel meteorite
or dense cluster of meteorites, estimated to have
been about 150 feet across and weighing several
hundred thousand tons, struck the rocky plain
with an explosive force greater than twenty
million tons of TNT (or around 1000 Hiroshima
bombs). Traveling at supersonic speed, this
impact generated immensely powerful shock
waves in the meteorite, the rock and the
surrounding atmosphere. In the air, shock waves
swept across the level plain devastating all in the
meteor's path for a radius of several miles.
http://www.meteorcrater.com/eventsfun/exptheimp.htm
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 12
13. Tunguska Blast
Trees near the Podkamennaya Tunguska River in Siberia still looked
devastated nearly two decades after a large meteorite exploded
above the ground in June 1908. The Tunguska event, which ranks as
one of the most violent cosmic impacts of this century, leveled nearly
800 square miles of forested taiga.
Smithsonian Institution
http://www.skyandtelescope.com/community/skyblog/newsblog/12662606.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 13
14. The Earth: Chicxulub
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5qJPTjMnwNk 2:25
Chicxulub impact visualization
The Chicxulub Crater is believed
to be the result of the collision with
an asteroid measuring some 10 to 20
km across. The environmental effects
that accompanied its formation were
thought to have been responsible for
the mass extinction at the end of
the Cretaceous period, about
65 million years ago, in which
the last of the dinosaurs, along with
many other species, disappeared (see
Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary).
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/C/Chicx.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 14
15. Ice Ages
Milankovich cycles are cycles in
the Earth's orbit that influence the
amount of solar radiation striking
different parts of the Earth at different
times of year. They are named after a
Serbian mathematician, Milutin
Milankovitch, who explained how
these orbital cycles cause the advance
and retreat of the polar ice caps.
Although they are named after
Milankovitch, he was not the first to
link orbital cycles to climate.
Adhemar (1842) and Croll (1875)
were two of the earliest.
http://deschutes.gso.uri.edu/~rutherfo/milankovitch.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 15
16. Ice Ages
http://universe-review.ca/I09-15-iceages.jpg
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 16
17. Earth: Life?
http://www.answers.com/topic/extinction-intensity-png-1
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 17
18. Earth’s Geology
LACC: §7.2, 3, 4
• Understand Earth’s interior: core (iron; solid
inner, liquid outer), mantle (rocky), crust;
differentiation
• Understand Earth’s geological features: a few
hundred million years old; plate tectonics and
erosion (and a few hundred impact craters)
• Understand Earth’s some of the Earth’s
extinction events: impacts (e.g. Chicxulub),
Milankovich cycles
An attempt to answer the “big question”: what is
out there?
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 18
19. LACC HW: Franknoi, Morrison, and Wolff,
Voyages Through the Universe, 3rd ed.
• Ch. 7, pp. 171-172: #1.
Due at the beginning of next class period.
Be thinking about the Solar System Project.
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 19
20. Earth’s Atmosphere
LACC §7.2, 3, 4
• Earth’s Atmosphere: composition, pressure,
and temperature
• The Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Life on Earth
An attempt to answer the “big question”: where
did we come from?
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 20
21. The Earth: The Atmosphere
• The greenhouse effect on Earth
heats our planet by about 55°F.
• The Earth’s atmosphere (and
magnetosphere) protect us from
dangerous radiation and meteors.
• Earth’s surface temperature and
pressure allow for liquid water on
its surface!
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 21
22. The Earth: The Atmosphere
Composition 1 bar surface
pressure
• N2 77%
• O2 21%
59°F average
• Ar 1%
surface
• H2O varies temperature
• CO2 varies
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 22
23. Earth: Black Body
Temperature
....Earth ...
255 K (-18 °C or
-0.5 °F). ...this
would be the
temperature of
the planet if it had
no atmosphere.
http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~kushnir/MPA-ENVP/Climate/lectures/energy/Radiative_Heat_Transfer.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 23
24. Earth: The Greenhouse Effect
http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/greenhouse-effect
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 24
25. Earth: The Greenhouse Effect
[The] graphic [on the previous slide] explains how
solar energy is absorbed by the earth's surface,
causing the earth to warm and to emit infrared
radiation. The greenhouse gases then trap the
infrared radiation, thus warming the atmosphere.
http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/greenhouse-effect
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 25
26. Earth: The Greenhouse Effect
The main greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases Chemical Pre-industrial Concentration Atmospheric Anthropogenic Global warming
formula concentration in 1994 lifetime (years)*** sources potential (GWP) *
Fossil fuel combustion
Carbon-dioxide CO2 280 ppmv 358 ppmv 50-200 Land use conversion 1
Cement production
Fossil fuels
Rice paddies
Methane CH4 700 ppbv 1720 ppmv 12-17 Waste dumps
21 **
Livestock
Fertilizer
Nitrous oxide N 2O 275 ppbv 312 ppmv 120-150 industrial processes 310
combustion
Liquid coolants.
CFCs CFC12 0 503 pptv 102
Foams
125-152
HCFCs HCFC-22 0 105 pptv 13 Liquid coolants 125
Production
Perfluorocarbon CF4 0 110 pptv 50 000 of aluminium
6 500
Production
Sulphur hexa-fluoride SF6 0 72 pptv 1 000 of magnesium 23 900
Note : pptv= 1 part per trillion by volume; ppbv= 1 part per billion by volume, ppmv= 1 part per million by volume
* GWP for 100 year time horizon. ** Includes indirect effects of tropospheric ozone production and stratospheric water vapour production. *** On page 15 of the IPCC SAR. No
single lifetime for CO2 can be defined because of the different rates of uptake by different sink processes.
GR I D
Arendal UNEP water?
Source: IPCC radiative forcing report ; Climate change 1995, The science of climate change, contribution of working groupe 1 to the second assessment report of the
intergovernmental panel on climate change, UNEP and WMO, Cambridge press university, 1996.
http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/main-greenhouse-gases
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 26
27. Earth: Atmospheric Evolution
http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/docs/rst/Sect19/Sect19_2a.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 27
28. Earth: Atmospheric Evolution
Materials for the atmosphere
were brought to the earth by
comets accreted during its
formation, then released by
volcanoes (From Don Dixon
http://cosmographica.com/gallery/
index.html). Additional late-
arriving comets would have added
additional material to the oceans
and atmosphere.
http://ircamera.as.arizona.edu/NatSci102/NatSci102/lectures/earth.htm
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 28
29. Earth: Atmospheric Evolution
Origin of the Earth's Atmosphere
After losing most of its original H and He, the
Primordial Atmosphere of the Earth was built up by
outgassing of the crust by volcanos:
•
Mostly H2O and CO2
•
Small amounts of N2 and sulfates
•
No oxygen (O2).
This is very different than our present atmosphere.
How did our atmosphere get the way it did?
http://ftp.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Unit5/atmos.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 29
30. Earth: Atmospheric Evolution
http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/gctext/Inquiries/Inquiries_by_Unit/Unit_8.htm
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 30
32. Earth: Atmospheric Evolution
Where did all the CO2 go?
The primordial atmosphere had ~1000 times more
CO2 than it does now. Where did it all go?
•
H2O condensed to form the oceans.
•
CO2 dissolved into the oceans and
precipitated out as carbonates (e.g., limestone).
Most of the present-day CO2 is locked up in crustal
rocks and dissolved in the oceans.
By contrast, N2 is chemically inactive
•
It stayed a gas in the atmosphere and become
its dominant constituent.
http://ftp.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Unit5/atmos.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 32
33. Earth: Atmospheric Evolution
Where did the O2 come from?
The second major constituent of the present-day atmosphere is
Oxygen (O2), but it was absent in the Primordial Atmosphere. Where
did all the O2 come from?
• Molecular Oxygen (O2) comes primarily from photosynthesis
in plants and algae.
• The O2 content of the atmosphere has increased from 1% to 21%
during the past 600 Myr.
Ozone (O3):
• Forms in stratosphere from O2 interacting with solar UV
photons.
• Blocks UV photons from reaching the ground.
This made land life possible as solar UV radiation is hazardous to life.
The presence of O2 and O3 in our atmosphere is a sign of life
(photosynthesis).
http://ftp.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Unit5/atmos.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 33
34. Earth: Life?
• 3.9 billion years ago: chemical evidence of
life
• 3.5 billion years ago: Stromatolite colonies
• 2 billion years ago: O2 accumulate is the
atmosphere
• 65 million years ago: Chicxulub impact
results in extinction of dinosaurs
• 200 thousand years ago: modern humans
• 1 hundred years ago: radio broadcasts
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 34
35. Earth: Life?
Colonies of trillions of these bacteria built up cabbage-like
structures called stromatolites. The bulk of a
stromatolite colony consists of layers of calcium
carbonate interspersed with mattes deposited by the
cyanobacteria (which are photosynthetic). Stromatolites
still exist on Earth but are rare (mainly at two localities in
Australia).
http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/docs/rst/Sect19/Sect19_2a.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 35
36. Earth: Climate Change
http://www.global-greenhouse-warming.com/ice-ages-and-sea-levels.html
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 36
37. Earth: Climate Change
The Medieval Warm Period was a time of warm climate in Europe, the height
of which was from about 950 until 1100 A.D. The warm climate overlaps with a
time of high solar activity called the Medieval Maximum. The Medieval Warm
Period occurred before the Little Ice Age (1350-1850 A.D.), a time of
particularly cool climate in Europe and other places around the world.
The graph on the left, a
reconstruction of average global
temperatures over the past 1000
years, shows that during the
Medieval Warm Period the
temperatures were likely similar to
the first part of the 20th century,
climate cooled during the Little Ice
Age, and has warmed dramatically
in recent decades. Temperatures
during the Medieval Warm Period
were likely cooler than the
temperature has been for the past
few decades.
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/climate/medieval_warm_period.html&edu=high
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 37
38. Earth: Climate Change
All five global
temperature
estimates
presently show
stagnation, at least
since 2002. There
has been no
increase in global
air temperature
since 1998, which
was affected by
the oceanographic El Niño event. This does not exclude the possibility that
global temperatures will begin to increase again later. On the other hand, it
also remain a possibility that Earth just now is passing a temperature peak, and
that global temperatures will begin to decrease within the coming 5-10 years.
Only time will show which of these possibilities is the correct.
http://www.climate4you.com/GlobalTemperatures.htm#Comparing
%20global%20temperature%20estimates
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 38
39. Earth’s Atmosphere
LACC §7.2, 3, 4
• Earth’s Atmosphere: composition (N2, O2),
pressure (1 bar), and temperature (59 °F), the
greenhouse effect
• The Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere: volcanic
outgassing, comet impacts, thermal escape.
• Life on Earth: earliest fossils, O2 levels, climate
change
An attempt to answer the “big question”: where
did we come from?
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 39
40. LACC HW: Franknoi, Morrison, and Wolff,
Voyages Through the Universe, 3rd ed.
• Ch. 7, pp. 171-172: #5.
• Ch 8: Tutorial Quizzes accessible from:
www.brookscole.com/cgi-brookscole/course_products_bc.pl?
http://
fid=M20b&product_isbn_issn=9780495017899&discipline_number=19
Due at the beginning of the next class period.
Be thinking about the Solar System Project.
Wednesday, March 3, 2010 40