A TRAINING ON GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND METHOD OF URANIUM EXPLORATION IN AND AROUND PURNAPANI-TAMAJHURI-CHIRUDIH-PATHARGODA AREA, SHINGHBHUM SHEAR ZONE, EAST SINGHBHUM DISTRICT, JHARKHAND

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A TRAINING ON GEOLOGICAL MAPPING AND METHOD OF URANIUM
EXPLORATION IN AND AROUND PURNAPANI-TAMAJHURI-CHIRUDIH-
PATHARGODA AREA, SHINGHBHUM SHEAR ZONE,
EAST SINGHBHUM DISTRICT, JHARKHAND
DISSERTATION SUBMITTED AS PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
FINAL YEAR
2019-20
Under the Guidance of Submitted by
Prof. R. K. Rawat Vijay Pratap Singh
Reg. No.:- Y17251032
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED GEOLOGY
DR. HARISINGH GOUR VISHWAVIDYALAYA
SAGAR 470003 (M.P.)

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DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED GEOLOGY
, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (M.P)
( . . .प.,”अ” , ) A Central University (NAAC Gr.”A” 3
rd
cycle)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Date 15 June 2020
Departmental Certificate
This is to certify that Mr. Vijay Pratap Singh, a student of M. Tech. 6th
semester has undergone 21 days Field Training on Geological Mapping and
Method of Uranium Exploration at Atomic Mineral Directorate Eastern Region,
East Singhbhum District Jamshedpur, Jharkhand from 15 December 2019 to 4
January 2020. This Field report comprises an actual work done by the student in
the field during their training.
Prof. S. H. Adil
(Head of the Department)
Department of Applied Geology
Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya
Sagar, M.P., India
Supervisor
Prof. R. K. Rawat

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Declaration
I hereby declare that I undertook training on “Geological Mapping and
Methods of Uranium Exploration” in and around The Area Purnapani-Tamajhuri-
Chirudih-Pathargoda Area, Shinghbhum Shear Zone under “Atomic Mineral
Directorate, Eastern region, East Singhbhum District Jharkhand”.
I further declare that this dissertation is written by me mainly based on my
fieldwork and reviewed literature which has been cited in the reference
accordingly. It is not copied either in part or full of any report/content submitted
earlier.
Date: 15 June 2020 Vijay Pratap Singh
Place: Sagar Registration No;- Y17251032
M. Tech. (6th sem.) Applied Geology

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Preface
“To a naturalist, nothing is indifferent the humble mass that creeps upon the stone is
equally interesting as the lofty pine which so beautifully adorns the valley or the mountain. But
to a naturalist who is reading in the face of the rocks the annals of a former world, the mossy
covering which obstructs his view, and renders indistinguishable from the different species of
stone is no less than a serious subject of regret.”
-James Hutton
This report entitled on “Geological Mapping and Methods of Uranium Exploration” In
And Around The Area Purnapani-Tamajhuri-Chirudih-Pathargoda Area, Shinghbhum Shear
Zone is a systematic consequence of the 21 days from 15 December 2019 to 04 January 2020.
Geological field mapping training of the young brains of Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya,
Sagar (M.P.)
This field report has been submitted as a part of partial fulfillment of the Final Year
Dissertation of M. Tech. course done under the guidance of Prof. R. K. Rawat and under the
supervision of Mr. M. K. Birua, Mr. Atanu Mukharjee, Mr. Subodh Upadhyay & Mr. Nithil I.
Scientific Officers at AMD, Eastern Region, East Singhbhum District, Jharkhand.
The field of study area like Singhbhum is the excellent insight for studying in terms of
the Structural, Petrological as well as Economic aspects.
Our goal is to study the area provided to us by preparing detailed geological map of that
area by plotting all the planar and linear attributes of the rocks and also measure the surface
radiometric anomalies and demarcated the radioactive horizon.
This Report consists of two parts. In the first part General introduction, Objective and
purpose of study, regional and local geology and the detailed mapping along with various
petrological, structural and economical aspects of the study area and the second part consists
of sampling, drilling, ore reserve estimation and Narwapahar mine visit.

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Acknowledgment
First of all, I pay my utmost gratitude to Late. Prof. William Dixon West, founder of our
department who initiated this fieldwork programme in the curriculum of M. Tech. three year
course in 6th
semester.
I feel immense pleasure to Prof. S. H. Adil, Head of the Department of Applied Geology,
Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar, Madhya Pradesh for arranging the training under
Atomic Mineral Directorate, Eastern Region, Jamshedpur, Jharkhand.
I am highly obliged to Dr. Anirban Saha, Regional Director, Eastern region, AMD
Jamshedpur for allowing us for training and to the training in charge Mr. M. K. Birua, Mr. Atanu
Mukharjee, Mr. Subodh Upadhyay & Mr. Nithil I. for their illuminating guidance, valuable
suggestions, inspiring attitude, constant encouragement and creative supervision right from
inception to culmination of this work.
It would be a burden on my conscience, if I do not put on record my deepest sense of
gratitude to our driver Mr. Rajesh and other coworkers in the camp.
I am heartfelt thankful to Prof. R. K. Rawat who guided us for the successful completion
of the dissertation.
I wish to take the opportunity to offer my special thanks to my field partners Mr.
Rishabh Namdeo, Mr. Abhishek K. Sinha, Mr. Rishabh Batri and Mr. Alok Kumar.
Lastly, I am grateful to all those who helped me directly or indirectly in the completion
of this report successfully.
Date: 15 June 2020 Vijay Pratap Singh
Place: Sagar

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In the photograph from left to right-
Mr. Nithil I (Geologist), Abhishek Kumar Sinha, Alok Kumar, Mr. Atanu
Mukharjee (Sr. Geologist), Vijay Pratap Singh, Rishabh Namdeo, Rishabh Batri,
Dr. Anirban Saha (DG Eastern Region), Dr. Kalyan Chakrabarty (Sr. Geologist),
Dr. Brajesh Tripathi (Sr. Geologist), Dr. D. Bhattacharya (Sr. Geologist),
Mr. Ankur (Geologist), Dr. K. K. Sinha (Sr. Geologist), Dr. Anil Sharma (Sr.
Geologist), Dr. Biswajit Panigrahi (Sr. Geologist)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
 Certificate…………………………………………………………………………………………….
 Departmental Certificate……………………………………………………………………….
 Declaration…………………………………………………………………………………………....
 Acknowledgment………………………………………………………………………………....
 Contents………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 List of figures ……………………………………………………………………………………….
 List of tables…………………………………………………………………………………………..
 List of maps……………………………………………………………………………………………
PART-1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1- Introduction
1.2- Brief Description of SSZ and General Geology
1.3- Aim and Objective of the Training
1.4- Location and Accessibility
1.5- Geomorphology
1.5.1- Physiography
1.5.2- Drainage
1.5.3- Climate and Rainfall
1.5.4- Soil
1.5.5- Flora and Fauna
1.6- About Mineral
1.6.1- Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Uranium Ore
1.6.2- Types of Uranium Ore Deposits
1.6.3- Uranium Mineralization and Deposits of India
1.7- Previous and Present Geological Work

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CHAPTER 2. GEOLOGICAL AND STRUCTURAL SETUP OF THE AREA
2.1- Introduction
2.2- Regional Geology
2.3- Local Geology
CHAPTER 3. PROSPECTING AND EXPLORATION
3.1- Introduction
3.2- Mapping Methodology
3.3- Stratigraphy and Lithological Description of the Area
3.3.1- Schists-
a) Feldspathic Schist
b) Sericite Schist
c) Biotite Schist
d) Biotite Chlorite Schist
e) Quartz Chlorite Schist
3.3.2- Quartzites-
a) Foliated Quartzite
b) Ferruginous Quartzite
c) Massive Quartzite
3.3.3- Meta Basics Rocks
3.3.4- Quartz veins
3.3.5- Photomicrograph of the observed lithologies
3.4- Structural Attributes
3.5- Structural and deformation exercise
PART- 2
CHAPTER 4. SAMPLING
4.1- Introduction
4.2- Purpose of Sampling
4.3- Principle of Sampling
4.4- Theory of Sampling
4.5- Techniques of Sampling

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4.5.1- Channel sampling
4.5.2- Grab or Chip sampling
4.5.3- Dump sampling
4.5.4- Bulk sampling
4.5.5- Composite sampling
4.5.6- Bore-hole sampling
4.6 - Sampling method in underground mine
4.6.1- Channel sampling
4.6.2- Bulk sampling
4.6.3- Core sampling
4.7 - Sample reduction techniques
CHAPTER 5. DRILLING
5.1 - Introduction
5.2 - Purpose of drilling
5.3 - Role of Geologist in drilling
5.4 - Classification of drilling
5.5 - Diamond drill
5.6 - Borehole deviation
5.7 - Borehole planning
5.8 - Preservation of cores
5.9 - Core logging
5.10- Drilling technique adopted in the area
5.11- Borhole deviation exercise
CHAPTER 6. GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES IN EXPLORATION
6.1 - Introduction
6.2 - Geophysical exploration methods used in AMD
6.2.1- Gamma ray logging
6.2.2- Spontaneous Potential survey
6.2.3- Magnetic survey
CHAPTER 7. ORE RESERVE ESTIMATION
7.1 - Introduction
7.2 - Classification of ore reserve
7.3 - Classification of ore estimation
7.4 - Transverse Section for estimating ore reserve
7.5 - Preparation of transeverse section

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7.6 - Ore Reserve Estimation Exercise
CHAPTER 8. NARWAPAHAR, URANIUM MINE VISIT
8.1- Introduction
8.2- Location
8.3- Geological setup
8.4- Structural Setup
8.5- Reserve and Resources
CHAPTER 9. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
9.1- Introduction
9.2- Sources of Radiation During Atomic Minerals Exploration and
Exploitation
9.3- Types of Nuclear Waste Generation
9.4- Impact of Uranium Mining on environment
9.5- Pollution Control Measures in Uranium Mines
CHAPTER 10. LABORATORY VISIT AT AMD, JAMSHEDPUR
10.1- Petrology lab
10.2- Physics lab
10.3- Chemistry lab
CHAPTER 11. CONCLUSION
References and Bibliography

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LIST OF MAPS
MAP 1- MAP OF INDIA HIGHLIGHTING JHARKHAND STATE AND FIELD AREA
(GHATSILA).............................................................................................. 19
MAP 2- MAP SHOWING URANIUM OCCURRENCES IN INDIA ............................... 25
MAP 3- SINGHBHUM CRATON GEOLOGICAL MAP (AFTER IYENGAR MURTHY 1982,
MISRA 2006 AND MEERT ET AL 2010) ..................................................... 29
MAP 4- GEOLOGICAL MAP OF SINGHBHUM SHEAR ZONE AND DISTRIBUTION OF
URANIUM MINE IN SSZ............................................................................ 31
MAP 5- TOPOSHEET OF THE STUDY AREA IN THE DISTRICT OF EAST SINGHBHUM
................................................................................................................ 35
MAP 6- PART OF TOPOSHEET NUMBER 73J/6 IN AN AROUND THE AREA OF
PATHORGHARA- TAMAJURI- CHURIDIH- PURNAPANI ............................. 36
MAP 7- DETAIL GEOLOGICAL MAP ALONG PATHORGHARA- TAMAJURI- CHURIDIH-
PURNAPANI TRACT, DISTRICT- EAST SINGHBHUM, JHARKHAND............. 37
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1- IN NATURE, URANIUM IS COMPOSED OF THREE PRINCIPAL ISOTOPES IN
THE FOLLOWING PROPORTIONS-.......................................................... 21
TABLE 2- PRIMARY URANIUM MINERALS............................................................. 22
TABLE 3- SECONDARY URANIUM MINERALS........................................................ 22
TABLE 4- URANIUM RESOURCES (AS ON MAY, 2017)........................................... 24
TABLE 5- STRIKE, DIP AND DIP DIRECTION OF THE FOLD..................................... 60
TABLE 6- STRIKE, DIP AND DIP DIRECTION OF JOINT............................................ 65
TABLE 7- GUIDANCE FOR REDUCTION AND MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE PARTICLE SIZE.
.............................................................................................................. 72
TABLE 8- CORE BARREL SIZES............................................................................... 80
TABLE 9- DIAMOND DRILL STANDARD SIZES OF CORE BARREL BITS..................... 82
TABLE 10- BORE HOLE LITHOLOGICAL SHEET....................................................... 90
TABLE 11- BOREHOLE DEVIATION WITH DEPTH AND LITHOLOGIES ..................... 91
TABLE 12- BOREHOLE DEVIATION WITH DEPTH AND LITHOLOGIES ..................... 92
TABLE 13- OBSERVATION TABLE FOR TRANSVERSE SECTION-1.......................... 107

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TABLE 14- OBSERVATION TABLE FOR TRANSVERSE SECTION-2.......................... 109
TABLE 15- PERMISSIBLE LIMITS OF DIFFERENT PARAMETERS............................ 121
LIST OF SECTIONS
SECTION 1- GEOLOGICAL CROSS SECTION ALONG A-B......................................... 38
SECTION 2- BORE HOLE DEVIATION PLOT ............................................................ 93
SECTION 3- TRANSVERSE SECTION 1.................................................................. 108
SECTION 4- TRANSVERSE SECTION-2.................................................................. 110
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1- FELDSPATHIC SCHIST SHOWING Z-SHAPED INTRAFOLIAL FOLD. WHITE
BANDS ARE OF FELDSPAR MINERALS AND BLACK BANDS ARE OF
PHYLLOSILICATE MINERALS BEHIND PATHARGHARA POND ................ 39
FIGURE 2- SERICITE SCHIST WITH SIGNIFICANT AMOUNT OF QUARTZ. SERICITE
MICA IDENTIFIED BY TINY FLAKES OF MICA NEAR SURDA MINE AREA,
PURNAPANI ......................................................................................... 40
FIGURE 3- BIOTITE SCHIST NEAR PATHAGHARA HILL ........................................... 41
FIGURE 4- BIOTITE- CHLORITE SCHIST.................................................................. 42
FIGURE 5- FOLIATED QUARTZITE WITH TWO CROSS CUTTING QUARTZ VEINS, AND
LEACHED IRON NEAR TAMAJURI.......................................................... 44
FIGURE 6- FERRUGINOUS QUARTZITE WITH MALACHITE AND SECONDARY
URANIUM ORE BEHIND PATHARGHARA HILL....................................... 45
FIGURE 7- FERRUGINOUS QUARTZITE WITH LATERITE CAP AT THE TOP OF
TAMAJURI HILL .................................................................................... 46
FIGURE 8- MASSIVE QUARTZITE........................................................................... 47
FIGURE 9- METABASIC ROCK NEAR TAMAJURI VILLAGE....................................... 48
FIGURE 10- TOURMALINE BEARING QUARTZ VEIN .............................................. 49
FIGURE 11- PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF SERICITE SCHIST IN 5X, (A) PPL (B) XPL ...... 50
FIGURE 12- PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF FELDSPATHIC SCHIST IN 5X, (A) PPL (B) XPL50

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FIGURE 14- PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF FERRUGINOUS QUARTZITE IN 5X, (A) PPL (B)
XPL.................................................................................................... 51
FIGURE 13- PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF BIOTITE SCHIST IN 5X, (A) PPL (B) XPL........ 51
FIGURE 15- PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF MASSIVE QUARTZITE IN 5X, (A) PPL (B) XPL52
FIGURE 16- PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF METABASIC ROCK IN 5X, (A) PPL (B) XPL.... 52
FIGURE 17- CRENULATION IN SERICITE SCHIST IN SOUTH OF PURNAPANI VILLAGE
.......................................................................................................... 53
FIGURE 18- S-C AND C-C’ FABRICS AND MOVEMENT DIRECTION......................... 54
FIGURE 19- PERPENDICULAR JOINT SETS DEVELOPED IN FOLIATED QUARTZITE.. 55
FIGURE 20- Z-FOLD .............................................................................................. 56
FIGURE 21- OPEN FOLD IN QUARTZ- SERICITE SCHIST.......................................... 57
FIGURE 22- RECLINED FOLD IN CHLORITE-MICA SCHIST....................................... 57
FIGURE 23- M-SHAPED FOLD IN FERRUGINOUS QUARTZITE................................ 58
FIGURE 24- CLOSE FOLD IN BIOTITE SCHIST ......................................................... 58
FIGURE 25- STRETCHED LINEATION IN FOLIATED QUARTZITE (AT PATHARGHARA
HILL).................................................................................................. 59
FIGURE 26- PLUNGE OF FOLD 1A ......................................................................... 61
FIGURE 27- PLUNGE OF FOLD 1B ......................................................................... 62
FIGURE 28- PLUNGE OF FOLD 2............................................................................ 63
FIGURE 29- PLUNGE OF FOLD 3............................................................................ 64
FIGURE 30- STEREONET PLOT OF AVERAGE PRINCIPAL JOINT SET PLANES .......... 65
FIGURE 31- ROSE DIAGRAM AND STEREONET POLE PLOT OF JOINT ORIENTATIONS
USED TO IDENTIFY PRINCIPAL JOINT SETS......................................... 66
FIGURE 32- DIAGRAMMATIC SCHEME OF DIAMOND DRILL ................................. 78
FIGURE 33- SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF ROTATORY CORE BARREL......................... 79
FIGURE 34- BOREHOLE CAMERA......................................................................... 84
FIGURE 35- BOOK PATTERN CORE ARRANGEMENT.............................................. 86
FIGURE 36- SERPENTINE PATTERN CORE ARRANGEMENT ................................... 86
FIGURE 37- DRILLING IN THE AREA USING HYDROSTATIC DIAMOND CORE
DRILLING RIG..................................................................................... 89
FIGURE 38- GM COUNTER.................................................................................... 96
FIGURE 39- SCINTILLATION COUNTER.................................................................. 97

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FIGURE 40- SCINTILLATION COUNTER USED IN FIELD TO MEASURE THE
RADIATION FORM ROCK EXPOSURE.................................................. 98
FIGURE 41- UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CLASSIFICATION (UNFC) FOR
MINERAL RESOURCES ..................................................................... 102
FIGURE 42- USGS RESOURCE CLASSIFICATION SCHEME ( ADOPTED FROM
MCKELVEY (1972)............................................................................ 103
FIGURE 43- CORE SPLITTER ................................................................................ 125
FIGURE 44- JAW CRUSHER ................................................................................. 126
FIGURE 45- DISK MILL ........................................................................................ 127
FIGURE 46- GM PROBE SET FOR CORE ASSAY .................................................... 128
FIGURE 47- BETA- GAMMA ASSEMBLY .............................................................. 129
FIGURE 48- GAMMA RAY SPECTROMETRY......................................................... 130
FIGURE 49- AUTOMATED LOGGING WINCH WITH GM LOGGING PROBE........... 131
FIGURE 50- LASER INDUCED FLUOROMETER (LIF).............................................. 133
FIGURE 51- PELLET FLUOROMETER.................................................................... 133

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PART- 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

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1.1- Introduction
India had looked forward to the potential for the peaceful utilization of atomic
energy at time when the pioneering activities in atomic energy field were geared
essentially for military use. After the traumatic demonstration of the destructive
force of atomic energy in Hiroshima, Dr. Homi J. Bhabha, The architect of the
Indian nuclear programme, had declared that “When nuclear energy has been
successfully applied for power production in say, a couple of decade from now,
India will not have look abroad for its experts but will find them ready at hand.” (I
A E A bulletin- vol.21, no. 5)
Today India is among about fifties countries in the world, and the only
developing country, to have the complete fuel cycle, right from uranium
exploration, mining, extraction and conversion, through fuel fabrication, heavy
water production in reactors, to reprocessing and waste management.
In India U and Th are two major radioactive elements for nuclear power
generation. The occurrence of an U mineral in the Singhbhum district was first
reported in 1921, when Sir Lewis Fermor of the Geological Survey of India
identified a specimen collected by Mr. E. F. O. Murray, a private prospector as
torbarnite (Bhola et al, 1966).
Uranium occur in different parts of India, but its economic, rather the
strategic concentration is far below its projected or perceived need. The present
position of U resource in India stands at 2,70,636 tons U3O8 under ‘indicated’ and
‘inferred’ categories. (as on May 2017, AMD)
1.2 Brief description of SSZ and general geology
The Singhbhum Shear Zone (SSZ) is 1-10 km wide and over 200 km long arcuate
belt extending form Baharagora in the east of Porahat in the west. The SSZ
separates the Archean cratonic nucleus on the south and the Proterozoic North
Singhbhum Fold Belt on the north of this one of the most important polymetallic
mineral districts in India. It hosts all the presently operative uranium mines. The
SSZ is characterized by extreme ductile shearing, multiple metasomatism,

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migmatisation and prominent mineralization of Cu, U, tungsten and phosphate.
The shear zone rocks are in turn overlain by pelitic schist of Chaibasa Formation.
The typical rocks in the SSZ are quartz-chlorite schist, quartz-sericite schist,
quartz-biotite schist, quartzite, meta conglomerate, soda granite, feldspathic
schist. The deformational history of this ductile shear zone is highly complex,
marked by repeated phases of folding, mylonitisation and rotation of fabrics.
The evolution of Singhbhum shear zone is multi-episodic at 2200, 1800,
1600 and 1000Ma. ‘Soda’ granite is emplaced at 2200 Ma; Cu mineralization
occurred at 1800 Ma; Kuilapal granite intrusion and U-mineralisation at 1600 Ma;
and final reactivation at 1000 Ma (Arkasani granite having Rb-Sr age of 1952 ± 84
Ma, and K-Ar ages of Micas. (Misra, 2006)
1.3 Aim and Objective of the training
The winter training program at AMD (Atomic Mineral Directorate), Eastern Region
(Ghatshila), Jharkhand was attended as a part for the partial fulfillment of the
dissertation for the course work at Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar,
Madhya Pradesh. The training is emphasized on “Prospecting and exploration of
Uranium” based on lithological, structural and mineralogical studies from the
given study area with the help of traversing method of mapping and identification
of radioactively prone lithologies exposed in the area. The training was done
under the guidance of Geologist of AMD in Ghatshila area. One day Narwapahar
Uranium Mine visit was also scheduled to know about mining techniques of U
ores, under the guidance of UCIL (Uranium Corporation of India) officials.
1.4 Location and Accessibility
Author has arrived at Tatanagar on 16/12/2019 in evening and then transferred
to Ghatshila camp on 17/12/2019 which is around 50 km away in SE direction
from Tatanagar, for geological field training. The Sagar and Tatanagar are very
well connected by Indian Railway services. From Tatanagar to Ghatshila camp and
from camp to field, all transport facilities have been provided by AMD officials.

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At Ghatshila an area had assigned for general geological mapping. The area
falls under the toposheet no. 73 J/6, longitudinal and latitudinal variations are
E860
15ʹ to E860
30ʹ and N220
45ʹ to N220
30ʹ. The area assigned for detailed
mapping belongs to Eastern part of Singhbhum Shear Zone. Target area was
about 10sq. km around Patharghara-Tamajuri-Chirudih-Purnapani area which is
around 10 km East of Ghatshila block, East Singhbhum District, Jharkhand.
Map 1- Map of India Highlighting Jharkhand state and field area (Ghatsila)
Source:-
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Findianexpress.com%2Felections%2Fghat
sila-jharkhand-assembly-election-chunav-results-2019-live-winner-name-runner-up-
6177132%2F&psig=AOvVaw0elu0Elz-
vKiiHAKS59Oho&ust=1591467029907000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CA0QjhxqFwoTCNCan-
I
700
E
I
800
E
300
N -
100
N -

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1.5 Geomorphology
1.5.1 Physiography: The given area occupied by highly cultivated land in
eastern part and the western part is covered with hills of steep to very steep
slope, scanty outcrop exposures and dense vegetation are present. Presence
of Quartzite and Schist lithological units perhaps give rise to Hill and flat plan
respectively, like topography due to different resistance power against the
weathering and erosion.
1.5.2 Drainage: The Subernarekha river flows from west to south-east
direction. All the tributaries of this area meet with the Subernarekha river.
Drainage pattern is dendritic in nature. Major tributaries which meet
Subarnrekha river from west to east are Sapnara nadi, Garra nadi, Dudh nadi,
Chakdaha nadi.
1.5.3 Climate and Rainfall: The climate of this region may be intensely hot in
summer and moderately cold in winter. The climate of the area is also
characterized by a hot dry summer and well-distributed rains in the monsoon
season. The cold season commences from December and lasts till the end of
February. The hot season follows thereafter and continues till end of June. The
southwest monsoon season is from the middle/end of June to the end of
September. The Climate of the district is temperate. Annual rainfall is 1200
mm to 1400 mm. This area comes under the path of south-west monsoon so
sometimes it receives heavy rain during July to September. During the summer
seasons maximum temperature goes up 400
C – 450
C whereas in winter it has
recorded a minimum of 80 C.
1.5.4 Soil: Red sandy to loamy, lateritic soil generally found in the area.
1.5.5 Flora and Fauna: There are number of reserve and protected forests in
the area. The forest are mostly composed of Shoris robuta (Sal), Butia species
(Palash), Albizzia procera (sufed sins), Diospyros melanoxylon (Tendu),
Terminalia chebula (Harra), Buchaninia latifolia (piar), Pengamia glabra

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(Koranj), Terminida belerica (Bahera), etc. In the area Pigs, Fox and Elephant
make comman appearance. Tigers and panthers are present but make very
rare appearance.
1.6 About Mineral
1.6.1 Geochemistry and mineralogy of Uranium: The chemical element
uranium is classed as an actinide metal. It was discovered in 1789 by Martin
Heinrich Klaproth in Germany. Uranium being member of the Actinide series
are highly electropositive metals. Uranium (U) is the last member of Group
VIB in modern periodic table. U is highly oxyphile in nature and occurring as
oxides, hydroxides, silicates, phosphates, vandates, molybdates, carbonate,
sulfates and arsenates. The elemental state of U is not reported from nature.
Affinity of U element toward organic matter such as humus, coaly matter,
petroleum and bitumen are known. In nature U occurs as commonly +4 and +6
ionic state. U (+4) is stable in reducing and U (+6) is stable in oxidizing
conditions. Results of the study of the U-O2-CO2-H2O system at T=250
C and
Pco2 = 10-2
atm show that for most meteoric waters in near neutral pH range,
the dominant aqueous species of uranium are expected to be oxide or
carbonate complexes of U+6
. Uraninite or pitchblende (UO2) will precipitate
with the lowering of Eh.
Table 1- In nature, uranium is composed of three principal isotopes in the following
proportions-
234
U 0.0054%
235
U 0.720%
238
U 99.275%
The above mentioned isotopes 235
U and 238
U, decay following finite
rates into 207
Pb and 206
Pb respectively. 235
U undergoes fission when
bombarded with slow neutron while 238
U absorbs slow neutrons to form 239
U
which decays to form the fissionable 239
Pu. There are some energetic
similarities (ionic size, charge, electronegativity’s, etc.) between U and several

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other elements in the periodic Table, i.e., Y (1.06 Å), Zr(0.87 Å), Th(1.10 Å),
Ca(1.06 Å) and Ba. Hence these elements are partially replaced by U in the
mineral structure (diadochy). For example, U+4
(1.04Å) replaces Ce in monazite,
Y in xenotime, Zr+4
in zircon and other zirconium minerals, Th+4
in thorianite
and Ca+2
in apatite and fluorite. (Goldsmith, 1954)
Table 2- Primary Uranium Minerals
Primary Uranium Mineral Chemical Composition
Uraninite UO2
Pitchblende U3O8
Coffinite U(SiO4)1-X(OH)4X
Brannerite UTi2O6
Davidite (REE)(Y,U)(Ti,Fe+3
)20O18
Thucolite U bearing pyrobitumen
Table 3- Secondary Uranium Minerals
Secondary U Minerals Chemical composition
Autonite Ca- bearing phosphates
Carnotite K-bearing vanadate
Gummite Mixture of uraninite and secondary U-
minerals of variable composition
Seleeite Mg (UO2)2(PO4)210 H2O
Torbernite Cu-bearing phosphates
Tyuyamunite Ca (UO2) 2 (VO4)258H2O
Uranocircite Ba(UO2)2(PO4)2.8-10 H2O

23. P a g e | 23
1.6.2 Types of uranium ore deposits
15 types of deposits have been retained in the new IAEA (International Atomic
Energy Agency) classification scheme. They are listed in a geologically
meaningful order from primary magmatic high temperature deposit to
sedimentary and surficial low temperature deposit.
1. Intrusive
2. Granite-related
3. Polymetallic iron-oxide breccia complex
4. Volcanic-related
5. Metasomatite
6. Metamorphite
7. Proterozoic unconformity
8. Collapse-breccia pipe
9. Sandstone
10. Paleo-quartz-pebble conglomerate
11. Surficial
12. Lignite and coal
13. Carbonate
14. Phosphate
15. Black-shale
1.6.3 Uranium Mineralization and Deposits in India
Uranium occurs in different parts of India but its economic, rather the strategic
concentration is far below its projected or perceived need. The resources of U
are estimated jointly with the uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL) for
mining of the deposit. The identified conventional uranium resources (RAR and
inferred) are 2,70,636 tonn U3O8 and are hosted are hosted by the following
type of deposit.
1. The principal deposit of the uranium in the country is the Singhbhum Cu-U
belt and presently, all working mines of uranium are located along belt, e.g.,
Bagjata (Moinjharia), Jaduguda, Bhatin, Narwapahar, Turamdih-Bandhurang-
Mohuldih, Singridungri-Banadungri, Bangurdih going from east to west.

24. P a g e | 24
2. There is minable uranium mineralization at a couple of places in and around
the Cuddapah basin and Bhima basin (Ukinal and Gogi in Yadgir district,
Karnataka) in South India.
3. In North East India Domiasiat-Gomaghat-Pdengshapak area and Lostoin-
Wahkut-Umthongkut area with the Creataceous Mahadek Sandstone of
Meghalaya. Exploratory mining has been sought recently for Wahkyn in
Meghalaya.
4. In Rajasthan (Vein type deposit at Rohil central and north).
5. In central India (Vein type mineralization at Bodal-jajawal, Chattisgarh).
Table 4- Uranium Resources (As on May, 2017)
Sl.No. Deposit Type Resource %
1 Carbonate 52.39
2 Metamorphite 25.81
3 Sandstone 8.86
4 Proterozoic Unconformity 7.87
5 Metasomatite 3.34
6 Granite-related 1.56
7 Paleo Quartz Pebble Conglomerate 0.15
Source- www.amd.gov.in

25. P a g e | 25
Map 2- Map showing Uranium Occurrences In India
Source-
https://www.examrace.com/CurrentAffairs/posts/6e/6e200402844de30712c93b659d6e5b682ff368b
0657d55b40c5dff0e6f97c7c3/Map-of-Atomic-Minerals-in-India.we
300
N -
100
N -
I
800
E
I
700
E
I
900
E
N
(Map not to scale)

26. P a g e | 26
1.7- Previous Geological Work
The area of Singhbhum Shear Zone has been an intense and most complicated
area of interest for many of the scientific studies. Many of the pioneer Geologist
and Researchers has contributed their lifelong work to understand the complexity
of Singhbhum and find out varied rich deposits of minerals, which this particular
zone possess. A brief chronological order of work done in the area has been listed
as:
1. Dunn and Dey’s regional geological survey (1928-1935) points out presence of
apatite veins south of Narwa Hill, as an indication to possible mineralization.
2. Radioactivity was first observed in the area during 1950-1951 over a length of
400 m, by Shri Ramaswamy of G.S.I.
3. Sarkar S.N. and Saha A.K., 1962- A revision of the Precambrian Stratigraphy and
the tectonics of the Singhbhum and the adjacent region.
4. Systematic and detailed geological mapping by large scale trenching was taken
up in 1962 by AMD.
5. Naha K., 1965- Metamorphism in relation to the stratigraphy, structure, and
the movements in part of East Singhbhum.
6. Banerjee A.K., 1968- Genesis of Cu sulphides, apatite, magnetite and
uraniferous mineral veins.
7. Bhola K.L., 1968- Uranium deposits in Singhbhum and their development for
use in the nuclear power programme in India.
8. Mukhopadhyay D., Ghosh A.K., and Bhattacharya S., 1975- A recessment of the
structure in the Singhbhum Shear Zone.
9. Rao N.K., and Rao G.V.U., 1983- Uranium mineralization in Singhbhum Shear
zone.
10. Sarkar S.C., 1985- Geology and Ore mineralization of Singhbhum Cu-Uranium
belt.
11. Presently all works are being carried out by AMD and UCIL.

27. P a g e | 27
CHAPTER - 2
GEOLOGICAL AND STRUCTURAL
SETUP OF THE AREA

28. P a g e | 28
2.1 Introduction
The Singhbhum shear zone (SSZ) separates the Archean cratonic nucleus on the
south and the Proterozoic North Singhbhum Fold Belt in the north is one of the
most important polymetallic mineralization zone in India. It hosts all the
presently-active uranium mines, some of the rich Cu-deposits and many small
apatite-magnetite ore bodies. Two prominent basins, namely the Iron ore basin
(Iron ore Group of greenstone sequence) and the Dhanjori basin (Dhanjori Group
of rocks) occupy the north-western and south-eastern parts of the cratonic
nucleus, respectively. The fold belt, near the northern margin of the craton, is
occupied by predominantly siliciclastic rocks of the Singhbhum Group. The SSZ
cuts across the rocks of Singhbhum Group, Dhanjori Group, and perhaps Iron ore
Group lying at the northern periphery of the Singhbhum granite complex. The
typical rocks in the SSZ are quartz–chlorite schist, quartz–sericite schist, quartz–
biotite schist, quartzite, metaconglomerate, tourmaline bearing soda
granite/feldspathic schist, and granophyre. Some of these rocks are restricted in
the shear zone including soda granite/feldspathic schist, granophyre, and
tourmaline. Recent radiometric studies revealed that the iron ore group appears
to be older than the so called underlying Singhbhum Granite.
The deformational history of this ductile shear zone is highly complex,
marked by repeated phase of folding, mylonitisation and rotation of fabrics.
The evolution of Shinghbhum shear zone is multi-episodic (Misra, 2006) at
2200, 1800, 1600 and 1000 Ma. ‘Soda’ granite is emplaced at 2200 Ma; Cu
mineralization occurred at 1800 Ma; Kuilapal granite intrusion and U-
mineralisation at 1600 Ma; and final reactivation at 1000 Ma (Arkasani granite
having Rb-Sr age of 1052 + 84 Ma, and K-Ar ages of micas).

29. P a g e | 29
Map 3- Geological Map of Singhbhum Craton (after Iyengar and Murthy 1982, Misra
2006 and Meert et al. 2010)

30. P a g e | 30
2.2 Regional Geology
The North Singhbhum orogen, about 50-60 km wide, exposes folded sequences in a number of
sub-basins. A prominent ductile shear zone, known as Singhbhum shear zone, passes close to
the southern margin of the orogeny. The shear zone is well known for its Cu-U, apatite-
magnetite, and W mineralization. The orogen is divided into 3 tectono-stratigraphic domains
namely Dhanjori domain, Singhbhum shear zone, Ghatsila domain, Dalma volcanics and Chandil
domain.
Present Stratigraphic succession of Singhbhum Craton
Ghatsila domain covers the area between SSZ and Dalma volcanics. Ghatsila domain is
divided into a lower Chaibasa Formation and an upper Dhalbhum Formation. Sarkar and Saha
(1983) have named this succession as Singhbhum Group (2100-2300 Ma Rb-Sr and 3100 Ma Pb-
Pb).
The Chaibasa Formation is dominated by mica schists. Progressive metamorphic
zonation of chlorite, biotite, garnet, staurolite, kyanite and sillimanite is seen.
Newer dolerite ( different age)
Kolhan Group (=Kunjar, Gangpur Group ?)
‘Soda’ Granite, Granophyre, Kuilapal Granite
Jagannathpur, Malangtoli volcanics
Dalma Group
Koira Group with Ongarbira volcanics
Dhanjori Group (=Simlipal Group)
……………………………...................Unconformity…………………………………...................
SBG- B, Boni Granite, chakradharpur Granite, Mayurbhanj Granite
Badampahar Group (Gurumasahni Group)
OMTG/SBG-A/ Kaptipada Granite and parts of Boni and Chakradharpur Granite
Older Metamorphic Group (OMG)
Base are not recongnized

31. P a g e | 31
The general lithology of Chaibasa Formation is garnet-staurolite-kyanite mica schists
with numerous bands of quartzite, ortho and para amphibolites, and acid to basic tuffs. Three
sets of folds and related fabrics of varying intensity, geometry and style are seen from different
sectors of the Ghatsila domain.
Source
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjQrtap6eHm
AhU_xTgGHXKfCAEQjhx6BAgBEAI&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Ffigure%2FUraniu
m-deposits-and-occurrences-of-the- Singhbhum-Shear-Zone
India_fig6_292981579&psig=AOvVaw26ssz6i8Tm6HRHc_GrWhBk&ust=1577948131836420
N
Map 4. Geological Map of Singhbhum Shear Zone and distribution of uranium mine in SSZ
(Map not to scale)

32. P a g e | 32
2.3 Local Geology
The Patharghara - Purnapani area is located in the east central segment of the SSZ. The rock
units exposed from west to east includes quartz-chlorite schist, massive quartzite, biotite –
chlorite schist, ferruginous quartzite, biotite schist, foliated quartzite, sericite schist, Feldspathic
schist, basic rock and laterite. All these lithounits belong to Chaibasa Formation of Singhbhum
Group. (Sarkar and Saha, 1983) The area is intruded by several metabasic rocks and quartz veins
contains appreciable amount of tourmaline, biotite , garnet etc. The feldspathic schist that
hosts U–Cu mineralization commonly contains significant Cu sulfide and traces of magnetite.
Most of the foliations in the study area are trending towards NW direction and dipping
towards NE direction that indicates compression forces are directed from NE direction. The
area preserves different phases of deformation in the form of different kind of fold. Structural
features like reclined folds, parasitic S, Z and M folds and warping are best preserved in
schistose rocks. Asymmetrical folds and intrafolial folds developed in the area indicates intense
shearing. In the mapped area 3 generation of folding can be identified in which 1st
generation
is isoclinal reclined fold, 2nd
generation is asymmetrical Z type of folds generated due to effect
of shearing and 3rd
generation is gentle open folds.
Observed Lithology of The Study Area
Laterite
Basic rocks
Feldspathic schist
Sericite schist
Foliated Quartzite
Biotite schist
Ferruginous Quartzite
Biotite – Chlorite Schist
Massive Quartzite (Fuchsite??)
Quartz-Chlorite Schist

33. P a g e | 33
CHAPTER -3
PROSPECTING AND EXPLORATION

34. P a g e | 34
3.1 Introduction
The primary objective of this dissertation work is to understand the techniques of prospecting
and exploration of Uranium in the given area using different geologic techniques. The detailed
mapping of the given area is very necessary to obtain the knowledge about several geological
aspects including structural set up, lithology variation, metamorphism, tectonic set up, type of
mineralization, characteristic ore minerals etc.
3.2 Mapping Methodology
The given area comprises of highly cultivated land in eastern part and the western part is
covered with hills, scanty outcrop exposures and dense vegetation. The presence of steep hills
in most of the area and scanty outcrops causes to priorities the “Traversing method” of
Geological mapping over ‘Across the Strike ’. Walking along the traverses of preferred direction
with observation and data collection based on structural, lithological and radioactivity aspects
fulfill the desired purpose.
The area being the part of Singhbhum Shear Zone comprises of multiphase deformation
whose indications can be seen in the field in the form of foliations, plunging folds, micro-
displacement, s-c & c-cʹ fabrics, stretched pebble, badinages etc. and data based on these were
collected. The scintillometer readings in particular places were collected and plotted with the
help of GPS in grid pattern on the map, to find the radioactive anomaly in the area. While
traversing, high radioactive anomaly observed in feldspathic schist and in laterite zone of study
area with the help of scintillation counter.

35. P a g e | 35
3.3 Stratigraphy and Lithological Description of the Area
Map 5- Toposheet of the study area in the district of East singhbhum

36. P a g e | 36
Map 6- Part of toposheet number 73J/6 in an around the area of Pathorghara- Tamajuri-
churidih- Purnapani

37. P a g e | 37
Map 7:- Detailed geological map along Pathorghara- Tamajuri- Churidih- Purnapani tract,
District- East singhbhum, Jharkhand
B
A
A
B

38. P a g e | 38
Section 1- Geological cross section along A-B

39. P a g e | 39
3.3.1 Schists
(a) Feldspathic Schist
Feldspathic schist contains abundant amount of sheared and foliated feldspar
with phyllosilicate minerals. Due to intense shearing and deformation feldspar
gets foliated and shearing can be identified by intrafolial folds and asymmetric
folds, S-C & C-C’ fabric is also well developed in phyllosilicate minerals. The strike
of foliation is NW-SE, moderately dipping toward NE.
Figure 1
Figure 1- Feldspathic schist showing Z-shaped intrafolial fold. White bands are of feldspar
minerals and black bands are of phyllosilicate minerals behind Patharghara pond

40. P a g e | 40
(b) Sericite Schist
Sericite is formed by the alteration of feldspars. Sericite is a white mica which
resembles as Muscovite in field, but can be distinguishable on the basis of tiny
flakes and dull pearly lusture. In the area it is generally considered that sericite
derived from the soda Granite. It is highly sheared and shearing can be identified
by S-C & C-C’ fabrics. The strike of foliation is NW-SE, moderately dipping toward
NE.
Figure 2- Sericite schist with significant amount of quartz. Sericite mica identified by tiny
flakes of mica near Surda mine area, Purnapani

41. P a g e | 41
(C) Biotite Schist
It is purely dominated by biotite. The biotite can be identified by its black colour,
lusture and foliated character. It overlies ferruginous sandstone due to which the
Quartz amount in the contact is in appreciable amount and showing resistive
nature so occupied few elevated region of the mapped area. It is highly affected
by shearing and folding. Signatures of all three generation of folding can also be
seen in this lithology. Shearing can be identified by S-C & C-C’ fabrics, intrafolial
folds and asymmetric folds. The strike of foliation is NW-SE, moderately dipping
toward NE.
Figure 3- Biotite schist near Pathaghara hill

42. P a g e | 42
(D) Biotite-Chlorite Schist
Biotite - chlorite schist is containing chlorite in abundance but also contain biotite
in an appreciable amount. It gives resemblance to quartz- chlorite schist in the
field except high amount of quartz in quartz- chlorite schist. It is highly sheared
and shearing in the rocks can be clearly identified with the help of S- C and C – C’
planes which are well developed in phyllosilicates. different generation of tight
folds can also be identified. It is also intruded by basic rocks and several quartz
veins. The strike of foliation is NW-SE, moderately dipping toward NE.
Figure 4- Biotite- chlorite schist

43. P a g e | 43
(E) Quartz- Chlorite Schist
Rock is mainly composed of chlorite and Quartz. The Chlorite mineral can be
identified by its typical greenish colour and its pearly lusture. In some outcrops it
is very hard to distinguish between the biotite and chlorite because of highly
weathered exposures. Few patches of Chlorite schist contain Tourmaline and
Garnet. The Garnet is altering into Chlorite by this we can say that it is Retrograde
type of metamorphism (Almandine zone to Chlorite zone) of Greenschist facies. It
is highly sheared, deformed and intruded by basic rocks and several Quartz veins.
The strike of foliation is NW-SE, moderately dipping toward NE.

44. P a g e | 44
3.3.2- Quartzites
As quartzite is very less prone to weathering and erosion; in results gives a steeply
contours and elevated hillock . Quartzite typically shows saccharoidal texture and
gives vitreous lusture. Apart from this presence of some flaky minerals are
observed giving foliated nature to the quartzite. In my study area mainly three
different types of Quartzite are found which are as follows-
(a) Foliated Quartzite
In the area due to the intense shearing and presence of high amount of
phyllosilicate minerals quartzite is highly foliated and stretched lineations are also
formed due to shearing. The general attitude of quartzite is striking NW- SE,
moderately dipping toward NE. This lithology occupies the eastern elevated
region of the area due to its resistive nature to weathering and erosion
Figure 5- Foliated Quartzite with two cross cutting Quartz veins, and leached iron near
Tamajuri

45. P a g e | 45
(b) Ferruginous Quartzite
In the area presence of iron bearing minerals gives ferruginous nature to the
quartzites and due to shearing Iron gets leached along the bedding and fracture
planes. The leached iron is mainly of hematite and magnetite. The cap of
laterite is overlying the ferruginous quartzite around Surda Area. In some places
the Intraformational conglomerate are also formed in the ferruginous quartzite.
The general attitude of quartzite is striking NW- SE moderately dipping toward
NE.
Figure 6- Ferruginous Quartzite with malachite and secondary uranium ore Behind
Patharghara hill

46. P a g e | 46
Figure 7- Ferruginous quartzite with laterite cap at the top of Tamajuri hill

47. P a g e | 47
(C) Massive Quartzite
This quartzite is very less foliated and may be due the presence of fuchsite it gives
greenish tint. Tiny grains of magnetite also present in some areas which can be
identified by its magnetic nature. It is highly intruded by several quartz veins and
some of the veins are tourmaline bearing. The general attitude of quartzite is
striking NW- SE, moderately dipping toward NE. It occupies the western elevated
region of the mapped area.
Figure 8- Massive Quartzite

48. P a g e | 48
3.3.3 Meta Basic Rocks
It is melanocratic, mesocrystalline to hemicrystalline, fine to medium grained, and
moderately high density rock. These basic rocks have undergone metamorphism
giving rise schistose behavior in some places. The intrusive behavior of these basic
rocks is along the foliation planes of schist rocks which are acting as Sill. The Sill is
trending NW- SE, moderately dipping toward NE.
Figure 9- Metabasic rock near Tamajuri village

49. P a g e | 49
3.3.4 Quartz veins
The entire area is highly intruded by several phases of Quartz veins. Some
veins contain tourmaline and biotite mineral grains. Some quartz veins are
highly fractured and shows effect of intense shearing and folding.
Deformation effects can be observed by the folding, boudinages, and tension
gashes developed in veins.
Figure 10- Tourmaline bearing Quartz vein

50. P a g e | 50
3.3.5 Photomicrograph of the observed lithologies
A
B
B
A
Plagioclase
Chlorite
Biotite
Sericite
Figure 12- Photomicrograph of Feldspathic schist in 5x, (A) PPL (B) XPL
Figure 11- Photomicrograph of Sericite Schist in 5x, (A) PPL (B) XPL

51. P a g e | 51
A
B
B
A
Biotite
Ferruginous matrix
Quartz
Figure 14- Photomicrograph of Biotite schist in 5x, (A) PPL (B) XPL
Figure 13- Photomicrograph of Ferruginous Quartzite in 5x, (A) PPL (B) XPL

52. P a g e | 52
A B
B
A
Quartz
Opx
Figure 15- Photomicrograph of massive Quartzite in 5x, (A) PPL (B) XPL
Figure 16- Photomicrograph of Metabasic rock in 5x, (A) PPL (B) XPL

53. P a g e | 53
3.4- Structural Attributes
1). Foliation and crenulation :-Since the study area is a part of Shinghbhum
shear zone so the entire lithology have undergone progressive ductile
deformation and metamorphosed upto green schist facies. Due to the shear
forces the flaky minerals (chlorite, sericite and biotite) are aligned into the plane
of least resistance along the direction of shear forces and the quartz that is
comparatively competent and other competent minerals stretched in the
direction of shear forces giving rise to a planer structure that is foliation. These
are well developed in quartz - chlorite schist, biotite – chlorite schist, biotite
schist, feldspathic schist and sericitic schist, quartzite and basic rocks. Most of the
foliations in the study area are trending towards NW direction and dipping
towards NE direction that indicates compression forces are directed from NE
direction. Micro folds are also developed forming crenulation which is another
indication of shearing.
Figure 17- Crenulation in sericite schist in South of Purnapani village

54. P a g e | 54
2). S-C and C-C’ fabric:- Due to the competency difference of minerals in
response to shear forces the incompetent mineral (chlorite, sericite, biotite) grain
deformed to form a sigmoidal grain giving rise to S-C fabric in which S plane is the
plane of flattening and the C plane is plane of movement. The angle between S
plane and C plane is inversely proportional to the deformation and the direction
of obtuse angle between S and C plane give the direction of movement. If the
angle between S plane and C plane become nearly zero and S plane obliterated
due to progressive shearing, the grains totally become elongated and new plane
of movement developed which results in C -C’ fabric and the acute angle between
C & C’ plane gives the direction of movement. In the study area S-C and C-C’
fabrics are well developed in all type of schistose rocks. By observing the acute
angle relationship between C and C’ plane, the general movement direction is top
of west.
Figure 18- S-C and C-C’ fabrics and movement direction
NW

55. P a g e | 55
3) Joints
Mutually perpendicular and inclined joints are developed in the lithounits of the
area as a brittle deformation after the rock have suffered ductile shear. There are
3 sets of joints (two joints are vertical and cross cutting, one is along the foliation)
in the sericitic quartzite and basic rock. The general attitudes of joint planes in
foliated quartzite are NW- SE steeply dipping toward SW, NE-SW steeply dipping
toward NW and NW-SE moderately dipping toward NE.
SW NE
NW
SE
Figure 19- perpendicular joint sets developed in foliated Quartzite

56. P a g e | 56
(4) Folds
The area preserves different phases of deformation in the form of different kind
of fold. Structural features like reclined folds, parasitic S, Z and M folds and
warping are best preserved in schistose rocks. Asymmetrical folds and intrafolial
folds developed in the area indicates intense shearing. In the mapped area 3
generation of folding can be identified in which 1st
generation is isoclinal reclined
fold, 2nd
generation is asymmetrical Z type of folds generated due to effect of
shearing and 3rd
generation is gentle open folds.
Figure 20- Z-FOLD

57. P a g e | 57
Figure 21- Open Fold in quartz- sericite schist
Figure 22- RECLINED FOLD in chlorite-mica schist

58. P a g e | 58
Figure 23- M-shaped fold in ferruginous quartzite
Figure 24- Close fold in biotite Schist

59. P a g e | 59
(5) Lineations
Stretching lineation and mineral lineation can be observed in the sheared
quartzite and schist. Well-developed stretched lineations over foliated quartzite
and tourmaline & magnetite mineral lineations are present all over the area.
Mineral lineations indicate the movement plane lie along NW-SE direction.
Figure 25- Stretched lineation in foliated quartzite (at Patharghara Hill)

60. P a g e | 60
STRUCTURE AND DEFORMATION EXERCISE
Object- To determine the plunge from the following data recorded in the quartz-
sericite schist outcrop.
Table 5- Strike, Dip and Dip direction of the fold
s.no lat. Long, strike dip direction
1(A) 2495520 441312 L1 340 42 70
2495520 441312 L2 235 62 325
1(B) 2495520 441312 L1 360 80 90
2495520 441312 L2 340 50 70
2 2495144 440762 L1 320 58 50
2495144 440762 L2 200 64 290
3 2496236 441261 L1 250 80 340
2496236 441261 L2 210 23 240

61. P a g e | 61
1(A)
Result-
PLUNGE:- 350
TREND:- 0330
N
N
L2
L1
Figure 26- Plunge of fold 1A

62. P a g e | 62
1(B)
Result-
Plunge-260
Trend-0040
N
N
L2
Figure 27- Plunge of fold 1B
L1

63. P a g e | 63
(2)
Result-
Plunge- 420
Trend- 3540
N
N
L2
L1
Figure 28- Plunge of fold 2

64. P a g e | 64
(3)
Result-
Plunge- 170
Trend- 2530
N
N
L1
L2
Figure 29- Plunge of fold 3
170

65. P a g e | 65
(4) Stereonet plot of Joints data
Table 6- Strike, Dip and Dip Direction of joint
S.no latitude longitude strike Dip Direction
1 2493547 443301 330 77 240
2 2493547 443301 230 65 320
3 2493971 441533 320 83 50
4 2495549 441116 5 83 95
5 2495549 441116 345 24 75
Figure 30- Stereonet plot of average principal joint set planes

66. P a g e | 66
Figure 31- Rose diagram and stereonet pole plot of joint orientations used to identify
principal joint sets

67. P a g e | 67
PART- 2
Chapter- 4
SAMPLING

68. P a g e | 68
4.1 Introduction
Sampling is an art of collecting small fractions of material so as to represent the
whole mass or a part representative of the whole that define the locations and
composition of an ore body or formation. Sample denotes something that has
been physically removed from its natural location to be tested in the laboratory. A
large number of sampling is required to get satisfactory approximation to the
great and physical characteristic of the deposit. How much and how sample to be
drawn that’s depend upon various geological factors like nature, shape, size of
deposit and the purpose and scope for which it is required. Sampling is the
quantitative as well as qualitative representative of ore value. Mine valuation is
closely related to the interpretation of geological condition and the choice of
method of sampling is governed by the character of mineral occurrence to be
studied.
4.2 Purpose of Sampling
It is done to certain or confirms the grade of ore and metal values which normally
varies in proportion from one place to another chemical and physical
characteristic of the ore body of the formation in general and genetically aspect in
thin and polished section to ascertain the exact dimension and geometry of
deposit. The purpose also incorporates the studies of engineering properties at
depth. For ground water study the hydrological property of the rock make it easy
to demarcate the flow direction and aquifer condition of depth.
4.3 Principle of Sampling
Based on arrive at consistency, geometry accuracy of a deposit.
(1) In all cases sampling is done across the strike or the contact.
(2) Examination sample should include chemical, macro and micro petrological
studies.
(3) Sample location must be indicated with reference to a fixed point on a plane.

69. P a g e | 69
(4) The surface must be cleaned to avoid weathered portion and contamination, it
should be from the fresh surface/section.
(5)Width of each sample should be recorded.
(6) Sample homogenization and reduction (below 156 mesh) mandatory for
chemical analysis.
(7) The depth and width of channel/groove should be uniform and recorded.
4.4 Theory of Sampling
Theory is based on uneven distribution and erratic behavior of metal/mineral
contents and physical characteristics of ore body.
(1) It is the part representative of the whole masses.
(2) Proper site of sample and width selection.
(3) Mechanical collection of mathematically spaced intervals.
(4) Proper care be taken when abnormal distribution of ore minerals.
(5) Techniques and amount of sampling depends upon type of deposit and degree
of development, in precious metals the consistency is generally known as assay
value, in coal- thermal unit, fixed carbon, volatile and coking quality, in metals-
tenor, in nonmetals- grade.
(6) No definite or universal procedure can be authentically presented but skills
and experience along with the behavior of ore body dictates the choice of
sampling.
4.5 Techniques of Sampling
The techniques of sampling from the outcrop, pit, trench, mines etc. may be
grouped into following:
4.5.1- Channel sampling
4.5.2- Grab or Chip sampling
4.5.3- Dump sampling
4.5.4- Bulk sampling
4.5.5- Composite sampling
4.5.6- Bore-hole sampling

70. P a g e | 70
4.5.1 Channel sampling: Channel or groove sample is collected from
grooves cut systematically across the ore body. This method is usually
applied in sampling of trenches, pits, underground mines- drifts, winzes,
raises, shafts and stopes. The purpose of cutting a groove and drawing a
sample is to ensure that uniform quantity of material is drawn over the
entire width of the ore body. A groove is cut across the ore body parallel to
the true width. Sample is drawn by further deepening the groove means of
a chisel to a uniform depth, and collecting the broken material either in a
pan, canvass or any suitable container. The amount of sample drawn is
generally of the order of one kilogram for 30 cm of groove length.
4.5.2 Grab or Chip sampling: Grab sample is the random collection of
broken chips from the exposed surface of an outcrop, from the mine
working or from the stacked material. The material from the stack can be
obtained by a small hand shovel or scoop. The sample thus collected, may
be of one piece of few pieces and weigh, so to say, one to two kilograms or
even less. Grab sample is obtained generally during the preliminary
recconnatory operation. It is also termed as picked up sample. Essentially, it
is an unbiased collection of the specimen. The grade of the deposit cannot
be relied upon from the assay value of such sample. It gives only an idea of
what the grade is likely to be. Location of the sample is very important in
this case.
4.5.3 Dump sampling: Dump sampling is done where the dump is of
regular shape. The sample is drawn at several points of the dump from its
top. Dump sampling is depending upon the size of the material dumped,
suitable methods are devised for such work.
4.5.4 Bulk sampling: Bulk sample is obtained, which may be of the order
of few tons, wither from the trench, pit, channel or from the run-of-mine.
4.5.5 Composite sampling: Theoretically different sample collected
from various parts of ore body and combine into a single sample as

71. P a g e | 71
representative for averaging the grade or tenor of the deposit. It can be
first step toward homogenization of sample.
4.5.6 Bore-hole sampling: Bore hole sampling is most authentic
visualization of subsurface formation. In this sampling technique, the
samples are drawn by drilling, usually core type, and is the most modern
and visual examination of mineralization underground. It hence delimiting
the lateral as well as vertical extension of the ore body, along with the solid
core, sludges are systematically examine on the basis of colour, texture,
mineral composition, structural feature, correlation of strata and several
engineering and hydrological property of rock etc. Systematic examination
and core logging may give the clear picture of ore body occurring at the
sub-surface. In case of radioactive ores, as in our field, the logging is done
by GM counter to detect radioactivity.
4.6 Sampling in Under Ground Mines
4.6.1 Channel sampling: In underground mine several grooves/channel
samples are drawn representing different rock types and ore types. To
determine the average of each groove/channel, it is necessary to know
whether the lode is fully exposed or not. In the Narwapahar underground
mine, being a radioactive uranium mine, the radioactivity count is
considered as sample at different places in mine. The GM probe is used to
taking the reading at every 15 cm interval across the ore drive.
4.6.2 Bulk sampling: In underground mine bulk sampling is done mainly
in the stope area whenever is required to determine different parameters
of the ore.
4.6.3 Core sampling: In underground mine, for further check the grade
and other parameter, core is obtained by drilling. The systematic logging of

72. P a g e | 72
core sample is done to ascertain economic feasibility. In the Narwapahar
mine, core samples wherever required, are obtained.
4.7 Sample Reduction Techniques
Sample preparation has two main objectives (1) to homogenize each sample and
(2) to reduce the quantity before analysis. Sample reduction is done in such a way
that the reduced final sample must be most authentic and representative of the
bulk or stockpile. Homogenization (proper sizing and mixing) and reduction make
a final representative called ‘sample pulp’.
The simple rule in sample reduction is that all fragments must be crushed
to a size that the loss of any single particle would not affect the analysis.
Generally, two methods are used to reduce the sample (1) Funneling (2)
Coning and Quartering.
Table 7- Guidance for reduction and maximum allowable particle size.
Weight of sample (in KG) Particle size ( diameter of crystal piece
in cm)
250.0 5.0
60.0 2.5
40.0 2.0
20.0 1.5
10.0 1
3.0 0.5
1.0 0.3
Proper mixing is prerequisite before reduction by coning and quartering. The
process is repeated until desirable quantity i.e. 50 grams is obtained. This
ultimately made in final two equal part term as sample pulp. One of which is
preserved and other is sent for lab analysis.

73. P a g e | 73
CHAPTER- 5
DRILLING

74. P a g e | 74
5.1 Introduction
Drilling is the process of making holes in the ground or rock to get the subsurface
information. Drilling is an art for subsurface geological investigation and it is
intended mainly to serve geologic information such as lithology, contacts, attitude
and sequence of formation present, presence and absence of veins and other
structural features. It is mostly for taking samples that provide necessary
information for estimating grade, tonnage of ore and persistence of ore at depth.
In mineral exploration field drilling is very important and can be most expensive
aspect.
5.2 Purpose of Drilling
The basic purpose of drilling is to get the subsurface information. There may be
several other purposes depending upon at which stage of prospecting and
exploration it is being used. Drilling has been employed in mining and geological
work for different purposes-
(1) Prospecting
(2) Exploration
(3) Blasting
(4) During exploitation for development
(5) Shaft sinking
(6) Rescue work
(7) Engineering works like grouting
Different drilling machines can also be classified according to the purpose
for which they are used as mentioned below:
(1) Drills for alluvial prospecting
(2) Drills for petroleum drilling
(3) Drills for water well drilling
(4) Drills for Hard rock drilling
(5) Drills for shaft sinking (large diameters and for driving large diameter tunnels)
(6) Drills for soil sampling, e.g., ultrasonic drills, vacuum drills.

75. P a g e | 75
5.3 Role of Geologist in drilling
For geologist drilling is sampling technique to investigate the subsurface condition
of lithology of area of interest. A driller takes responsibility to drill only at given
place, but to provide the suitable place where the drilling operation done is the
duty of a Geologist. The basic idea behind the role of geologist is “to get the
maximum information with minimum drill”. The drilling operation is concern with
the economic aspect. Deeper the drill more the expense is needed. Hence drilling
is very expensive aspect and role of geologist is very significant.
There are different role of geologist in drilling operation like,
(1) To plan the bore hole.
(2) Selection of drilling method and type.
(3) Sampling during drilling (core sampling and sludge sampling)
(4) In bore-hole logging etc.
5.4 Classification of drilling
Based on the principle involved in the operations, drills may be classified under
the following types
(A) Percussion
(B)Rotary
(C) Miscellaneous
(A) Percussion drilling: In percussion drilling the rock is broken by repetitive
impaction. It is the oldest type of drills and most commonly used. It is of following
type-
(1) Jumper bar or hand drill
(2) Pneumatic drills- Jack hammer, Hammer drill, Wagon drill
(3) Churn drill
(4) Reichdrill or Drillmaster (down-hole type)

76. P a g e | 76
(B) Rotary
(1) Auger
(2) Calyx
(3) Rotary drill using rock roller bits, tricone bits etc. and turbo drills (using
diamond and T.C. bits)
(4) Diamond drills (using, diamond and T.C. bits).
(C) Miscellaneous
(1) Jet drilling
(2) High temperature flame drill
(3) Banka or Empire drill
(4) Burnside drilling equipment
(5) Soil sampling drills
5.5 Diamond drill: -
It is the most popular type of drill among all types of drilling employed in the
mineral exploration work. Diamond drills (Fig. 23) is used for subsurface drilling.
In diamond drilling, a cylindrical bit (cutting tool) impregnated with diamonds is
connected to a string in a hollow type and is rotated by a mechanical device,
which may be diesel engine or a pneumatic compressor device. The engine
transmits the rotary motion. It differs from rotary drills with respect to the type of
cutting tools employed.
Utility of Diamond drills
To get a continuous core sample of entire depth of the rock drilled is the main
purpose of diamond drilling. During drilling operation, our aim is to get the
maximum core recovery for the accurate sampling and estimation of the grade
and reserve of the ore body. However, the 100% core recovery can never be
attained because of fracturing and faulting but by the use of better advanced
equipment and use of better skilled persons with a careful handing maximum
85%-95% core recovery is possible.

77. P a g e | 77
Function of Diamond drills
In diamond drilling, operating in hard terrain for drilling a core is powered by
diesel engine that rotates a shaft which supplies rotary motion to the bit
connected at the end of drilling rod after the completion of a run. A clip known as
core clip is used in the core barrel for lifting up the core. The clip consists of an
incomplete circular band, which is wedge shaped in section. The dip allows the
core to pass through the barrel. After drilling is over, the rods are lifted and this
act as a wedge between the core and core barrel to gripping the core. The core is
held firmly in position within the core barrel from which it is removed by
unscrewing the diamond bit.

78. P a g e | 78
Figure 32- Diagrammatic scheme of diamond drill
Source-
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwigeg.shopa.hopad.alypt.xtern.seme.inifo.benol.mecad.cular.isra.moh
ammedshrine.org%2Farco-roto-phase-wiring-diagram-review

79. P a g e | 79
Figure 33- Schematic diagram of rotatory core barrel
Source
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Ffigure%2FThe-Rotary-Core-
Barrel-RCB-coring-system-in-the-coring-mode

80. P a g e | 80
Parts of Diamond drill
In diamond drilling, besides the machine unit the major parts of the diamond drill
are:
Drilling Rods
In upper part of drill machine there is a hollow rod, which is a steel cylinder and
generally 3 m length. When drilling is progressed the one rod joins to the other
and the bit advanced to the depth and continues to make hole.
Core Barrel
The core barrel is used in diamond drilling. It is hollow cylindrical rod usually 3m
in length opened at both the ends serves as receptacles to collect the core. Core
Barrel sizes are given in Table 8.
Table 8- Core barrel sizes
Core barrel Outer diameter (mm) Inner diameter (mm)
RWT 29.46 18.66
EWT 37.34 21.46
AWT 47.62 30.10
BWT 59.62 42.03
NWT 75.31 58.75
Two type of core barrel are generally used for drilling:
a) Single tube
Single tube barrel is used in hard rock formations that do not dissolve or
disintegrate, when it comes in contact with flowing water.
b) Double tube
The double tube barrel is used in soft rock formation. These consist of two tubes.
Drilling water passes through the annular space between the inner and outer tube

81. P a g e | 81
without coming in contact with core. These are of two types: Swivel type and rigid
type.
Core Clip/lifter
The core clip consist of an incomplete circular band which is wedge shaped in
section. The core clip allows the core to pass through the core barrel when drilling
is in progress.
Casing
Casings are of high tension steel and flush jointed pipes, when diamond drilling is
starts in loose formation, which is friable in nature. The casing is in four standard
sizes: Nx, Ax, Bx and Ex and these are the 10 feet and 20 feet long.
Fishing Tools
During the process of drilling, the drilling tools may be broken and lost in the hole
or small instrumental parts may be accidentally dropped into the hole. They
hinder the progress of drilling and produce extensive wearing and tearing to the
machinery.
Diamond Bits
The stone are set in holes, made in the matrix and the metal is squeezed in from
the sides of the holes by gouging to hold the stones. These processes are known
as caulking. Sizes of bits are given in table 9.
Two types of Diamond Bits are used for drilling:
a) Surface-set Bits
These are the surface set natural bits. The variations that can be effected in
diamond bits to accommodate various conditions are: the hardness of the matrix,
the density of stones and the size of stones. The surface set bit, until recently, has
dominated the bit market. In petroleum drilling, the diamond bits are rarely used.
Mining applications also use surface set bit 85%. The main advantages, which
have contributed application of surface set bits, are:
1. Design permits high diamond protrusion.

82. P a g e | 82
2. As there is one layer diamond, only the hardest matrix can be used.
3. Capable of drilling efficiently at depth greater than 500 m.
4. Ability to drill through a wide range of rock strata without changing the bit.
5. Operates efficiently on low speed drilling machine.
b) Impregnated Bits
The impregnated bits have to a large degree been focused on the narrow kerfs
type bits such as the ‘T’ series. The impregnated bit face runs much closer to the
rock than the surface set bit and therefore bit hydraulics becomes increasingly
critical as kerfs width increases. The important advantages of impregnated
diamond bits, which have contributed to their acceptance, are:
1. No long terms diamond shortage problems.
2. Bit life can be determined by height of impregnation
3. An efficient method of drilling hard rock formations provided the correct
drilling parameters are used
Table 9- Diamond Drill Standard Sizes of Core Barrel Bits
Bit Size
code
Diameter of Bit (in inch) Diameter (in inch)
Inside Outside Hole Core
EX ⁄ 1
AX
BX
NX 3

83. P a g e | 83
Diamond Protrusion
Diamond protrusion in a bit is determined by the size of diamond use. Larger
diamonds give more pronounced protrusion and smaller diamonds give lesser
protrusion.
Diamond Quality
Diamond bits and rammer shells are set with the best quality diamonds. The
diamonds are specially selected graded and sized to meet every drilling
requirement. The grade of diamond most economical per meter drilled is not
necessarily the cheapest and can only be determined by carefully conducted
tests.
Sludge
Sludge is the crushed and ground materials which released during drilling and get
mixed and comes out with it. Sludge is equally important as core. During diamond
drilling, water is pumped down inside the rods and comes out side. The rock
fragments that are flushed out with this water are collected and known as the
sludge sample.
5.6 Borehole Deviation
It is most essential to draw correct interference from drill hole data, mainly the
orientation of holes throughout the drilling operation. Diamond drill holes are
never ideally straight and deviation is higher in deeper holes. (more than 200
feet).
The direction of deviation is often influenced by the nature of structure in
the formation. Holes at the small angle to the bedding plane make curve toward
parallelism with the bedding plane. Although the intension is to drill hole as
straight as possible or circumstances permits. It is entirely feasible to cause
deflection intentionally usually by lowering a metal wedge into a hole. Deeper
hole (greater than 500 feet) are liable to deflection and main reason is caused due
to careless drilling operation or certain geological factors. hole will give a second
penetration and additional sample.

84. P a g e | 84
The main cause for deviation for diamond drill holes are:-
(1) Presence of rock of different or alternate hardness.
(2) Steep dip angle of formations.
(3) Steeply dipping or vertical bore hole after passing through softer rock is
deflected on touching a relatively very hard formation and tend to follow a dip.
(4) Jointing and fracturing with rock mass normally deflect the bore hole from the
normal course.
(5) Sudden variations and excessive pressure applied during drilling.
Borehole deviation measurement
In our field area mainly two method is applied to measure the
bore hole deviation . (1) HF method (2) Bore hole
camera method.
(1) Inclinometer / HF Method
It is used to measure the angle of the hole at the point of
measurement at different depth. The simple device consists of
the glass cylinder protected by a metal case. The cylindrical glass
is partially filled with solution of HF acid for suitable
concentration which is lowered into the hole toward desired
depth. HF acid has property to corrode the glass. In the tube or
cylinder two meniscuses, one original horizontal and the other
inclined due to the hole deviation is obtained and the angle
between two meniscuses is recorded.
In field, to measure the borehole deviation, at every 4 meter
drill interval this method is being used.
(2) Borehole Camera Method
It comprises metallic compass and cameral arrangement
attached to the drill rod and lowered in bore hole at the time of
measuring the inclination. Now days the technique is so
sophisticated that it records the depth, inclination, drift and
direction of deviation bore hole.
Figure 34- - Borehole
camera

85. P a g e | 85
5.7 Borehole planning
In our field Borehole planning is organized by ‘grid pattern’ at the corner of
square.
The fundamental idea about the planning of borehole is that, there should
be minimum number of bore hole to get maximum and relevant information and
confirmation about the ore deposit. Borehole planning is entirely concern with
the economic aspects. In field area the distance between two bore hole is
generally 200 meters at the final stage of exploration.
Before going for borehole drilling following points should be taken care-
(1) The borehole should intersect the mineralized vein or bed at minimum
distance (generally putting the bore hole perpendicular to mineralized
vein/ore body).
(2) The borehole should intersect the mineralized vein below the water table
to encounter reduced ore.
(3) Angle of borehole drilling should be managed with bore hole deviation,
which depends upon the lithology.
5.8 Preservation of cores
Sampling of cores is an essential process for analysis and examination. For this
purpose the cylindrical rock mass obtained from the core barrel after drilling
called “core” is placed in the core boxes. These are flat wooden boxes, which are
normally 1m long and about 1.5ft wide. The height of the box is so adjusted as to
accommodate the core and hence it depends on the diameter of the core. The
box is divided into a number of longitudinal compartments by wooden partitions.
The width and number of partitions is also dependent on the diameter of the
core. The box is fitted with a lid as well as latch.
The preservation of core can be done in two patterns {Fig. 26 and 27}.

86. P a g e | 86
1. Book Shaped Pattern
In this pattern, cores are kept parallel in longitudinal in the same direction. For
example, if 1-3m is kept in the first compartment form left to right, then 3-6, 6-9,
etc. will also be accommodated in the same direction.
2. Serpentine Pattern
In serpentine pattern the cores are arranged in both directions in other words the
arrangement of core starts from first end of box in first core cast and the second
core cast starts from other end of box.
Figure 35- Book pattern core arrangement
Figure 36- Serpentine pattern core arrangement

87. P a g e | 87
5.9 Core logging
All drilled hole data gathering is termed as logging. On removal from the barrel
the core consist of one or more cylindrical pieces of rocks. The driller places the
core in a box longitudinally. For geological record each core is split longitudinally.
Half of which is preserved and the other half sent for detail lab examination.
Before splitting the core, geologist examines various features which are exhibited
best on the split surface. The texture is visible after wetting the core. The
geologist log is foot by foot description in a note book.
The following geological aspects are usually record-
(1) % of core recovery in each run.
(2) Grain size expressed quantitatively.
(3) Recognizable minerals and its properties.
(4) Type and degree of alteration.
(5) Angle between the structural planes and axis of the core cleavage and
schistosity.
(6) Bedding, joints, veinlets etc.
(7) Location of clay or mud recovered (indication of fault)
Borehole logging is of mainly 3 types-
(1) Geological (2) Geotechnical (3) Geophysical
Geological logging deals mainly with lithological changes and structural
information like fracture, dip, beddings etc.
Geotechnical logging deals mainly with discontinuities like fracture, joints,
apparent shear, RQD, Hardness etc.
Geophysical logging deals mainly with some geophysical aspects which help to
confirm the presence of deposit. These geophysical logging are Gamma-Gamma
logging, Neutron logging, resistivity logging, SP logging etc.
For Uranium deposit, Gamma-Gamma logging is useful.

88. P a g e | 88
In geological logging following parameters are taken under consideration:
a. Run Length
It is the total length of individual run.
b. Core Recovery
It is expressed in percentage and is calculated using following formula:
Recovery % = Core length x 100
Run Length
c. Lithology
Identification of texture, grain size, and composition of core sample.
d. Structure
Study of structural features as they provide clues for trend of mineralization.
e. Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
It is expressed in percentage and is computed by following formula:
RQD% = Total length of core exceeding 10 cm in length x 100
Run length
f. Core Angle
The angle between the core axis and the plane of foliation, bedding and
schistosity etc is known as core angle.
5.10 Drilling technique adopted in the area: -
The drilling method is being adopted in field is rotatory drill method with
Diamond core bit (fig. 31). It is a type of rotatory drill method in which from the
bore hole, rock cores are collected and analyzed. Generally two types of assembly
are used there viz ; Hydrostatic rig and conventional rig. Hydrostatic rig is used for
drilling holes upto 900-1000 m whereas conventional rig is used for shallower drill
holes upto 400 m. In present, the widely used machine is hydrostatic rig,
conventional rig is used in Kudada area only.
The drilling in the area using hydrostatic rig has reached upto 700 m and is
still continued. The method which they are using in the area is direct coring
method because the subsurface formations are sufficiently hard and compact. In

89. P a g e | 89
the bore hole after completion of drilling and besides drilling the borehole
deviation and borehole logging is also done. The core sample is arranged in book
pattern.
Figure 37- Drilling in the area using hydrostatic diamond core drilling
rig

90. P a g e | 90
Table 10- Borehole lithological Sheet
Date- dd/mm/yyyy Borehole number- XX Reduced level- X meter Location- xyz
S.no. CORE RUN CORE
RECOVERY
(M)
CORE
SIZE
(M)
RQD
(%)
LITHOLOGICAL
DISCRIPTION
FOLIATION
/ BEDDING
STRUCTURE
FROM
(M)
TO
(M)
1 10 12.5 2.5 3 14.5 Quartz-chlorite
sericite schist
1150
(core angle)
Sigmoidal
quartz vein,
foliation
2 12.5 15.5 3 3 - Altered zone 120 Foliation
3 15.5 18.5 3 3 - Quartz-chlorite
sericite
135 Foliation,
quartz ribbon
4 18.5 21 2.5 3 - Sericite schist 140 Foliation and
crenulation
5 21 24 3 3 - Quartz-
chlorite-
sericite schist
(+_ iron oxide)
155 Quartz vein, s-
c fabric,
quartz vein
tightly folded
6 24 26.5 2.5 3 - Quartz –
chlorite-
Sericite schist
150 Hinge zone of
micro fold,
augen shaped
quartz ribbon,

91. P a g e | 91
5.11 Borehole Deviation Exercise
Object- To prepare the section of borehole deviation for two bore hole and mark
the lithology from the given hypothetical bore hole data.
Given Borehole Data-
Bore Hole number – BH1 Reduced leveL-144
Table 11- Borehole deviation with depth and lithologies
DRILLED DEPTH OF
BOREHOLE (in meter)
LITHOLOGY
00-30.00 SEICITE SCHIST
30.00-55.00 QUARTZITE
55-83 BIOTITE SCHIST
83-180 FERUGENIOUS
QUATRZITE
180-202 BIOTITE CHLORITE
202-254 QUARTZITE
254-300 QUARTZ CHLORITE
SCHIST
DRILLED DEPTH OF
BOREHOLE (in meter)
BOREHOLE
DEVIATION
00-30.00 0˚
30.00-55.00 0˚
55-83 60-1˚
83-180 90-1˚
120-2˚
150-2˚
180-202 180-4˚
202-254 210-6˚
240-7˚
254-300 270-9˚
300-10˚

92. P a g e | 92
Bore Hole Number- BH2 Reduced level – 124 m
Table 12- Borehole deviation with depth and lithologies
DRILLED DEPTH OF
BOREHOLE (in meter)
LITHOLOGY
00-100 SERICTE SCHIST
100-120 QUARTZITE
124-156 BIOTITE SCHIST
156-250 FERRUGENIOUS
QUARTZITE
250-272 BIOTITE CHLORITE SCHIST
272-316 QUARTZITE
316 QUARTZ CHLORITE SCHIST
DRILLED DEPTH OF
BOREHOLE (in meter)
BOREHOLE DEVIATION
00-100 60-1˚
90-1˚
100-120 120-1˚
124-156 150-2˚
156-250 180-2˚
210-3˚
240-5˚
250-272 270-6˚
272-316 300-7˚
316 330-7˚
360-8˚
390-7˚

93. P a g e | 93
Section 2- Borehole Deviation Plot

94. P a g e | 94
CHAPTER- 6
Geophysical Techniques in Exploration

95. P a g e | 95
6.1 Introduction
Geophysical survey is carried out in the 3rd
stage of the Exploration. In
Geophysical survey knowledge of physical property of materials are applied in the
field of geology to ascertain the presence of ore in subsurface. Different types of
geophysical survey are done for different type of prospecting for ore deposit.
6.2 Geophysical Exploration Methods used in AMD
In the field for Uranium prospecting mainly two useful geophysical surveys are
applied. (1) Gamma ray logging in field as well as in borehole logging and (2)
Magnetic survey
6.2.1 Gamma ray logging
Radiometric log makes use of either the natural radio activity produced by
unstable elements 238
U, 235
Th and 40
K or radioactivity induced by the
bombardment of stable nuclei with Gamma rays or neutron. Gamma-rays
detected by scintillation-counter or occasionally by Geiger Muller counter. This
Gamma-rays detection is done in bore hole as well as on field.
Gamma-ray has highest penetration power up to 150 meter in air. To
detect the Gamma-ray in Scintillation counter there is Thallium activated Sodium
Iodide crystal present which detect the Gamma ray coming from the radioactive
sources in the rock.
This Gamma-detection is done in both places on the field during field
survey to demarcate the anomalous area and in bore hole after drilling to confirm
the ore deposit extension and to estimate the reserve of ore deposit. Detector
detects total radiation coming in the form of all three ray alpha, beta and gamma
and represent in the form of total equivalent count in micro roentgen per hour.
The instrument which is necessary for bore hole logging for such purpose is
housed in a cylindrical metal tube known as ‘Sonde’.
Gamma ray logging is preferably used where the shale or schist formation is
present and in field area the schistose rock is known for highest uranium content.

96. P a g e | 96
The radiometric recording instruments used in field are
(1) GM – counter or Geiger-Muller counter
(2) Scintillation Counter
(1) GM Counter-
In this recording device each beta-particle or secondary electron induced by
gamma- rays passing through the argon gas and ethyl alcohol filled at low
pressure counter and generate a pulse of current on the resistance which can be
registered by spatial devices. The higher the radioactivity of the source, the more
frequently the counter will registered pulses. The number of pulses in a unique
time usually pulse per minute gives a major of radioactivity of the object to the
tested.
The assembly of GM counter consists of a GM tube which is filled with poly-
atomic vapour such as argon gas and ethyl alcohol at low pressure in a moisture
proof cylindrical tube. The interior of cylindrical thin glass tube in coated with
silver lining which act as cathode and attached to a tungsten wire which acts as
anode. The detector is connected to a composite count-rate meter with the
provision for built- in high voltage power supply unit necessary for the detector
and suitable electronic circuits to detect the signals. The signals are amplified by
suitable electronic device and recorded.
Figure 38- GM Counter

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Sorce-gmio.png
(2) Scintillation Counter-
In this instrument, radiation coming from the sample is picked up by the counter
and if alpha particle is picked the detector is ZnS Ag activated crystal, for beta-
particle anthracene crystal and for gamma radiation particle NaI thallium
activated crystal is used. The gamma radiation gives rise to scintillation or flesh
light or small spots of light which are picked up by photomultiplier tube which
convert these radiation into electric pulses. These pulses are further amplified
and then recorded. In GM counter pulses are of all same size but in Scintillation
counter the pulses are proportional to the gamma-emitter. By looking the pulses
it can be detected that from what source gamma radiation are emitted i.e.; due to
U or Ra of Th.
The scintillation counter is more expensive than the GM counter and less
easy to transport, but it is nearly 100% efficient in detecting gamma radiations.
Figure 39- Scintillation counter
Source-Instrumenttools.com

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Figure 40- Scintillation counter used in field to measure the radiation form rock exposure

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6.2.2 Magnetic survey
Different lithology has different mineral composition and based on which
different magnetism also the rock bodies are possessed. In the field PPM (proton
precision magnetometer) is used for measuring the magnetism of the subsurface
rock. Magnetism in the rock is occupied by certain magnetic mineral like
magnetite, pyrrhotite, illmenite etc.
The PPM contains one liquid (H+
proton concentrated liquid). In a normal
position, the electron present in the liquid are randomly oriented and moved
randomly in the liquid. In the PPM survey an external electric field is applied for a
moment of seconds. As the external field applied, the randomly oriented
electrons arrange themselves in proper order in response to external field. But, as
the external field is shut down, they again start to regain their original random
position. During the obtaining the random position of electrons they
rotate/precise and hit the coil present in the instrument. This hitting of electron is
recorded by the coil. The more is the precision/rotation intensity, more the
susceptibility of magnetism in the magnetic material below the earth’s surface.
As it is well known that shear zones are very good source of hydrothermal
deposit in form of magnetite deposit, sulfide deposit etc. and they host uranium
also.

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CHAPTER – 7
ORE RESERVE ESTIMATION

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7.1 Introduction
The reserves are known mineral assets available for exploitation. The estimation
of reserves consists of finding out the total volume and converting it into total
tonnage. When the measurement is in the metric system (C.G.S.) the total volume
in cubic meters multiplied by the specific gravity of the mineral gives directly the
tonnage in metric tons. Reserve estimation consists of qualitative as well as
quantitative analysis of ore deposit. The quantity is determined by various
geophysical methods and the quality is determined by various sampling
techniques and lab analysis. The following constituents are considered for ore
reserve estimation-
(1) Determination of quantity of mineral and associated valuable mineral
constituents.
(2) Qualitatively determination of grade of mineral.
(3) Condition and distribution of mineral in particular block and in entire
mineralized area
(4) Economically important aspects of estimated mineral deposit.
The method of mining, life of mine, industrial setups etc. are entirely
depend upon the ore reserve estimation.
7.2 Classification of Ore Reserve
United Nations Framework Classification (UNFC) for energy and mineral resources
is a universally applicable scheme for classifying/evaluating energy and mineral
reserves/resources. It was adopted in 2004 by the United Nations Economic
Commission of Europe (UNECE).
The UNFC consists of a three dimensional system with the following three
axes;
G Axis- For Geological Assessment
F-Axis- Feasibility Assessment
E- Axis- The degree of economic viability

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Figure 41- United Nations Framework Classification (UNFC) for Mineral Resources

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Identified Resources Unidentified
Resources
Demonstrated
Inferred
Hypothetical
(prospective)
Speculative
(Prognostic)
Measured Indicated
Economic Reserve
Undiscovered
Resources
Sub-
Economic
Para
Marginal
Known Resources
Marginal
Degree of Geological Assurance
Economic
Feasibility
Figure 42- USGS resource classification scheme ( adopted from Mckelvey (1972)

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Resource Base- It is the totality of an element as it occurs in its many chemical
and physical states within the earth crust.
Mineral Resource- Part of resource base, discovered and be economically
producible at the future dates.
Reserve- Identified useable material extracted economically and legally at the
time of evolution.
(a) Measured- Based on Sample analysis and measurements margin of error <
20%
(b)- Indicated- Based partly from sample analysis and reasonable geologic
projection.
(c)- Inferred- Unexplored but extension of identified based on geologic evidence
and projection.
The alternate name for Measured, Indicated and Inferred reserve are
proved, probable and possible respectively.
7.3 Classification For Ore Reserve Estimation Methods
Ore Reserve Estimation Method
Geometric Method Graphical Method
(1) Included area
(2) Extended area
(3) Triangular method
(4) Polygonal method
(1) Use of isochore map
(2) Use of structural (stratum) contours
(3) Transverse section (plan and section
method)
(4) Exploratory mining method

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Different methods are used depending upon the nature, geometry and
structural condition of ore deposit. For example isochore map method Is applied
mostly for coal deposits because they are usually plan bedded and thickness of
seam is more or less equal. Transverse section method is generally useful for
deposit as a dipping ore body.
In field, uranium based on the different bore hole data analysis and section
preparation it is found that mineralized ore body is mostly dipping and thus the
transverse section method (plan and section method) is most useful for
Estimation of ore reserve.
7.4 Transverse Section Method For Estimation of Ore Reserve
Transverse section method is mostly useful in dipping ore body type deposit. In
this method the transverse section along the different bore hole is prepared.
Transverse section is always prepared across the strike of the ore body. The line
across the strike of the ore body is called section line. The main advantage of
preparation of transverse section is-
(1) It gives clear cut picture about run of borehole drilled underground.
(2) Depth of intersecting the ore body by borehole can be determined.
(3) Dip of the ore body and behavior of ore body from one borehole to other bore
hole can be identified.
(4)Borehole deviation can be clearly observed.
(5) We can directly calculate the ore reserve estimation from borehole to bore
hole using selective scale.
7.5 Preparation of Transverse Section
The following steps are to be followed to draw the transverse section along
different boreholes.
(1) Draw the horizontal datum line according the reduced level of the particular
place.

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(2) Mark the point of bore hole according to selected scale with respect to
distance on ground.
(3) Draw the perpendicular line (axis) downward showing depth with respect to
bore hole drilled.
(4) Draw the borehole deviation path from different borehole points downward
with respect to depth.
(5) Mark the boundaries (upper and lower) at different depth for borehole
intersection with ore body.
(6)Joint the upper and lower boundaries of intersection with ore body for
different bore hole to get the transverse section.

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7.6 Ore Reserve Estimation Exercise
Object- To estimate the total ore reserve of uranium ore from the given
hypothetical transverse section. (Given specific gravity of uranium ore is 2.8)
Table 13- Observation table for transverse section-1
Bore
hole
No.
GRADE
(in %)
TRUE
THICKNESS
(in m)
AVERAGE
THICKNESS
(in m)
AVERAGE
GRADE
(IN %)
DISTANCE
BETWEEN
THE BORE-
HOLE (in m)
AREA OF
INFLUENCE
(in m2
)
VOLUME
(IN m3
)
TONNAGE
(IN Ton)
2 0.037 2.29 3.695 0.185 50 100 18475 95.7005
3 0.034 5.19
3 0.034 5.19 4.76 0.036 150 100 71400 71.9712
4 0.039 4.42
4 0.039 4.42 9.98 0.020 130 100 129740 726.902
5 0.041 15.54
5 0.041 15.54 17.02 0.044 110 100 187220 232.384
6 0.048 18.50
6 0.048 18.50 17.25 0.091 100 100 172500 439.53
7 0.043 16.00
Result- Total tonnage of the transverse section=1566.4877 Ton

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Section 3- Transverse Section 1

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Table 14- Observation table for transverse section-2
Borehole
No.
GRADE
(in%)
TRUE
THICKNESS
(in m)
AVERAGE
THICKNESS
(in m)
AVERAGE
GRADE
(IN %)
DISTANCE
BETWEEN THE
BORE-HOLE
(in m)
AREA OF
INFLUENCE
(in m2
)
VOLUME
(IN m3
)
TONNAGE
(IN Ton)
2 0.033 2.44 2.21 0.04415 50 100 28730 35.51
3 0.053 1.98
3 0.053 1.98 1.94 0.0534 175 100 33950 50.762
5 0.054 1.90
5 0.054 1.90 3.20 0.0392 125 100 80000 87.808
6 0.033 4.50
Result- Total tonnage of the transverse section=174.08 Ton

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Section 4- Transverse section-2
Result- Total estimated ore reserve is 1746.5677 ton.

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CHAPTER-8
NARWAPAHAR URANIUM MINE VISIT

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8.1 Introduction
Narwapahar Uranium Mine is operated by Uranium Corporation of India Ltd
Jaduguda (UCIL). Narwapahar Mine is the first fully mechanized mine operating
since April 1995. It has Mechanized underground working by horizontal Cut and
Fill (HCF) method. UCIL also operates Jaduguda, Bhatin, Bagjata, Turamdih,
Banduhurang and Mohuldih Mines and Uranium Ore Processing Plants at
Jaduguda and Turamdih in the region. Narwapahar Mine Lease is spread over
456.62 ha land under villages Hartopa, Murgaghutu, Patharchakri and Rajdoha.
The mine lease area also includes 25.56 ha of Forest Land.
8.2 Location
It is located in East Singhbhum District of Jharkhand. The Narwapahar deposit
(Lat: 220
41’; Long: 860
16’) is situated approximately 11Km. west of Jaduguda in
the central region of the Singhbhum Thrust Belt Besides Narwapahar Mine. The
deposit is accessible by good, all-weather roads from Jamshedpur (approximately
15Km). The Nearest railway station is Tatanagar and airports are Tatanagar and
Ranchi.
8.3 Geological Setup
The mineralization’s thrust zone in Narwapahar is believed to be between
Chaibasa Group of rocks (Mica schist and phyllites) and phyllites of Iron Ore stage.
The rock types in Narwapahar are essentially chlorite and Biotite Schists but in
most places chlorite predominates. There is sericite, apatite and magnetite in
addition to uranite and pitchblende in the mineralized zone. The foliation strike of
the rocks is generally NW-SE with the following dip to the NE. The Narwapahar hill
proper is made of Dhanjori quartzite and zone of thrusting is along the northern
foot hill represented by chlorite and Biotite Schists.
8.4 Structural Setup
The main regional structural feature is the major over-fold, the axial plane of
which is parallel to the foliation strike of the rocks. The axial plane shears along
which the mineralization has taken place are also parallel to the foliation strike of
the rocks. Apart from this there are certain cross– folds, whose axial planes are

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almost at right angles to the regional strike of the rocks. These superposed folds
or cross-folds are probably subsequent to the mineralization. A few transverse
and strike faults have also been met with in the area. Uranium in the form of
uraninite and pitchblende is associated with the higher temperature oxide –
phase.
8.5 Reserve and Resources
The ore reserve of Narwapahar Mine was calculated departmentally at 0.03 %
eU3O8 cut off (including low grade zones up to 0.02 % eU3O8 grade in selected
areas) to estimate the residual life of mine. The calculated mineral reserve as on
August 2017 is 5.9 million ton. Present production capacity is about 0.5 million
ton per year which is proposed to be enhanced upto 0.60 million ton per year.
From the mine 100% of the waste rock shall be utilized in stowing
underground voids. However waste rock generated during shaft sinking 25000
ton/year (i.e. 75000 t in every three years) will be dumped externally in northern
part of lease.

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CHAPTER – 9
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS