11 25 09 Notes
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The document summarizes key findings from the Beadle and Tatum experiment that provided evidence that genes specify proteins. Specifically, it found that (1) a mutation in one gene would only affect one specific enzyme, supporting the "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis, and (2) as long as the DNA sequence was correct, the metabolic pathway would proceed properly from enzyme to enzyme. It then provides an overview of the process of protein synthesis at both the bacterial and eukaryotic level, including transcription, translation, and the genetic code mapping nucleotide triplets to amino acids.
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![Notes 11-25-09
Page 190
The connection between Genes and Proteins
-The study of metabolic defects provided evidence that genes
specify proteins
-Genes => tell cells how to build proteins
-Beadle and Tatum Experiment
-One gene – One polypeptide
Beadle and Tatum Experiment
(Metabolic pathways
-Worked with fungus pathways
-Final phase [d], grows from a.
-As long as DNA sequences are correct, all enzymes do the right thing.
-However, if gene is mutated and enzyme one does not work
-A enzyme damaged, B can still transform into C and then D
and work properly
-A, B, C damaged, no-go, D directly would still work.
-One gene affects particular enzyme, as gene makes
enzyme.
-One gene, one enzyme hypothesis
-“One gene, one polypeptide/protein”.
-Gene simply instructs how to build protein](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/11-25-09notes-091203084041-phpapp02/85/11-25-09-Notes-1-320.jpg)
![Bacterial Protein Synthesis
-Make small copy of segment of DNA describing how to make
small segment of protein
-mRNA – messenger RNA – copy of gene
-RNA – uracil instead of thymine
-Complimentary base pairing system used. mRNA is like 2nd DNA
strand.
-Translate DNA/RNA to protein sequence
Eukaryotic Protein Synthesis
-Transcription
-RNA processing
-Translation
-link up outside nuclear pore with ribsomes, ribosomes read code
-in the genetic code nucleotide triplets, RNA [codons] speicy amino
acid sequence
-codons tell which amino acid to place next in the polypeptide chain.
-UUU = phenylalanine -UAA = leucine
-page 192 – genetic code chart
-AUG – Start codon – Methianine
-STOP codons – UAA, UGA, UAG
-First and last letter important, third not so much.
-“Synonyms”
Transcription – Initiation
-RNA polymerase
-nucleotides can only be added to the three prime end of the RNA chain,
just like DNA
-Sides pulled apart, temp strand read.
-3 prime end toward 5 prime end read
Transcription – Elongation
-Complimentary base pairing, attaching to 3 prime end
-Adenine -> uracil
-Cytosine -> guanine
-Thymine -> adenine
-Guanine -> cytosine
Transcription – Termination
-Stop codon
Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription
-Introns => unusable information that needs to be cut out
-reattaches important part of RNA](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7)
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2. Key molecules involved include DNA, mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes, and amino acids. DNA contains the genetic code. mRNA carries the code to the ribosomes. tRNA brings amino acids and pairs with mRNA codons.
3. Transcription and translation involve initiation, elongation, and termination steps. During transcription, RNA polymerase copies DNA onto mRNA. During translation, ribosomes read mRNA and link amino acids using tRNA.
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1. Protein synthesis involves transcription of DNA into mRNA in the nucleus, and translation of mRNA into proteins at ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
2. Key molecules involved include DNA, mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes, and amino acids. DNA contains the genetic code. mRNA carries the code to the ribosomes. tRNA brings amino acids and pairs with mRNA codons.
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3. During translation, the mRNA strand is used to build a chain of amino acids on a ribosome. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules bring amino acids to the ribosome based on complementary base pairing between the tRNA's anticodon and the mRNA codon.
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1. Gene expression involves the transcription of DNA's genetic code into mRNA and the subsequent translation of mRNA into proteins.
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3. The mRNA copy is then used as a template during translation as ribosomes match tRNA anticodons to mRNA codons to assemble amino acids into proteins.
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3. The mRNA carries the genetic message to the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs through translation.
4. During translation, transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomes in the cytoplasm work together to assemble amino acids into proteins based on the mRNA instructions.
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The document outlines the plans and objectives for AP Biology lessons during the week of January 25th through January 29th, 2016. The schedule includes notes on chapters 13 and 14 about transcription and translation on different days. Students are assigned to study figure 14.24 and there will be a quiz on transcription on February 1st. The document then reviews key concepts about transcription, including the three stages of initiation, elongation, and termination. It describes differences between transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and how pre-mRNA is modified through capping, polyadenylation, and splicing before becoming functional mRNA in eukaryotic cells.
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The document summarizes key concepts about translation - the process by which the genetic code is translated into proteins. It discusses how the genetic code uses triplets of nucleotides (codons) to specify 20 different amino acids. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules carry specific amino acids and interpret the codons by base-pairing between the tRNA's anticodon and the mRNA codon. Ribosomes facilitate the assembly of amino acids into a polypeptide chain according to the mRNA sequence. The stages of translation include initiation, elongation through multiple cycles of codon recognition and peptide bond formation, and termination when a stop codon is reached. Point mutations can cause substitutions, insertions or deletions of nucleotides and affect protein structure.
Chapter 13 notes
RNA and protein synthesis are explained in four sections: I) RNA types and functions, II) Ribosomes and protein synthesis, III) Mutations, and IV) Gene regulation and expression. RNA has three main types - messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA - and is synthesized through transcription. Protein synthesis involves translation of mRNA into proteins using tRNA, rRNA, and ribosomes. Mutations can occur during transcription or translation. Gene expression and regulation control which genes are expressed.
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RNA differs from DNA in its role and structure. RNA is involved in protein synthesis by carrying copies of DNA sequences to direct the assembly of amino acids. There are three main types of RNA - messenger RNA carries copies of DNA to other parts of the cell, ribosomal RNA makes up ribosomes, and transfer RNA carries amino acids to ribosomes as specified by mRNA codons. Codons in mRNA specify the amino acids needed to form proteins, with different codon sequences determining the properties of different proteins.
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This document explains how DNA is transcribed into messenger RNA and then translated into proteins. It begins by establishing that DNA contains the genetic instructions, which are passed to RNA and then proteins. It then describes transcription, where DNA is copied into messenger RNA in the nucleus. The document explains how messenger RNA carries the genetic code to the cytoplasm to be translated by ribosomes into proteins, using transfer RNA to match mRNA codons to amino acids. In summary, it outlines the central dogma of molecular biology - that DNA is transcribed into RNA and then translated into functional proteins.
Regulation and gene expression
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The document discusses bidirectional promoters, which are DNA regions between two genes that can initiate transcription in both directions. It provides statistics on various promoter elements that can distinguish bidirectional from unidirectional promoters. Bidirectional promoters have higher average GC content (66% vs 53%) and are more likely to be located in CpG islands. They less frequently contain TATA boxes and more often contain G-rich elements like BRE and SP1 binding sites. Analyzing simulated gene distributions found the probability of a second gene increases exponentially with distance from the first up to around 335 base pairs on average. In conclusion, bidirectional promoters can be identified by their distinct patterns of DNA elements and spacing between genes.
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1. Gene expression involves the transcription of DNA's genetic code into mRNA and the subsequent translation of mRNA into proteins.
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3. The mRNA copy is then used as a template during translation as ribosomes match tRNA anticodons to mRNA codons to assemble amino acids into proteins.
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1. DNA contains the genetic instructions and is located in the nucleus.
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3. The mRNA carries the genetic message to the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs through translation.
4. During translation, transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomes in the cytoplasm work together to assemble amino acids into proteins based on the mRNA instructions.
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Transcription is the process of copying a section of DNA into a complementary strand of mRNA. Translation is the decoding of an mRNA message into a polypeptide chain by a ribosome, starting at a START codon and stopping at a STOP codon. The document provides an overview of transcription and translation and encourages practicing replicating DNA, mRNA, tRNA, and protein sequences.
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1. DNA contains the genetic code and instructions for making proteins, which it stores in the cell nucleus. 2. During transcription, RNA polymerase copies DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA) which carries the code to the cytoplasm. 3. In translation, ribosomes use mRNA to produce proteins according to the genetic code by linking amino acids specified by mRNA codons. 4. Newly formed proteins travel to the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body for processing and packaging before use in the cell.
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Translation is the process by which the genetic information stored in DNA and passed to mRNA is ultimately expressed as proteins. It involves the use of ribosomes, mRNA, tRNAs, and amino acids. The genetic code consists of three nucleotide sequences called codons that correspond to specific amino acids. There are 61 codons that code for 20 amino acids, and 3 termination codons that signal the end of protein synthesis. Translation occurs through initiation, elongation, and termination stages on the ribosome, and involves codon-anticodon recognition between mRNA and tRNA to add amino acids in the correct sequence specified by the mRNA.
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This document discusses several topics related to protein structure and function, including:
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- Proteolytic cleavage of zymogens such as trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen to form active protease enzymes.
- The addition of prosthetic groups like heme and iron-sulfur clusters during protein maturation.
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The document summarizes key concepts about translation - the process by which the genetic code is translated into proteins. It discusses how the genetic code uses triplets of nucleotides (codons) to specify 20 different amino acids. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules carry specific amino acids and interpret the codons by base-pairing between the tRNA's anticodon and the mRNA codon. Ribosomes facilitate the assembly of amino acids into a polypeptide chain according to the mRNA sequence. The stages of translation include initiation, elongation through multiple cycles of codon recognition and peptide bond formation, and termination when a stop codon is reached. Point mutations can cause substitutions, insertions or deletions of nucleotides and affect protein structure.
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RNA and protein synthesis are explained in four sections: I) RNA types and functions, II) Ribosomes and protein synthesis, III) Mutations, and IV) Gene regulation and expression. RNA has three main types - messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA - and is synthesized through transcription. Protein synthesis involves translation of mRNA into proteins using tRNA, rRNA, and ribosomes. Mutations can occur during transcription or translation. Gene expression and regulation control which genes are expressed.
DNA vs. RNA
RNA differs from DNA in its role and structure. RNA is involved in protein synthesis by carrying copies of DNA sequences to direct the assembly of amino acids. There are three main types of RNA - messenger RNA carries copies of DNA to other parts of the cell, ribosomal RNA makes up ribosomes, and transfer RNA carries amino acids to ribosomes as specified by mRNA codons. Codons in mRNA specify the amino acids needed to form proteins, with different codon sequences determining the properties of different proteins.
12.3 dna, rna, and protein
This document explains how DNA is transcribed into messenger RNA and then translated into proteins. It begins by establishing that DNA contains the genetic instructions, which are passed to RNA and then proteins. It then describes transcription, where DNA is copied into messenger RNA in the nucleus. The document explains how messenger RNA carries the genetic code to the cytoplasm to be translated by ribosomes into proteins, using transfer RNA to match mRNA codons to amino acids. In summary, it outlines the central dogma of molecular biology - that DNA is transcribed into RNA and then translated into functional proteins.
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Oh, that's how you make a cake! The fundamentals of going from gene to protein.
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This document discusses several fungi that are used as model organisms in genetic research, including Neurospora crassa, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Dictyostelium, Agaricus bisporus, and Curvularia lunata. Neurospora crassa has been extensively researched for over 75 years, with around 1000 loci mapped. Experiments on Neurospora led to the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis. Saccharomyces cerevisiae was the first organism where the spheroplast transformation method was demonstrated. Dictyostelium and Agaricus bisporus have also provided insights into fungal evolution and pathogen resistance. The pathogen Curvularia lunata caused a 40% decrease in
TRANSCRIPTION/TRANSLATION 2015
There are three main classes of RNA involved in gene expression: messenger RNA (mRNA) which carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which makes up the ribosomes, and transfer RNA (tRNA) which transfers amino acids to the ribosomes. Gene expression requires two main steps - transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA to produce a protein. During transcription, RNA polymerase uses DNA as a template to produce mRNA which carries the code for a protein. Translation then occurs as ribosomes use the mRNA code to link amino acids in the correct sequence to form a protein.
DNA the carrier of genetic information
1) Archibald Garrod hypothesized in 1909 that genes control enzymes, which catalyze chemical processes in cells and cause inherited diseases when certain enzymes cannot be produced.
2) Beadle and Tatum's "One Gene, One Enzyme Hypothesis" in the 1940s proposed that each gene directs the production of a single enzyme.
3) Experiments in the 1950s-1960s provided evidence that DNA, not proteins, carries the genetic information through transformation, viral infection, and replication experiments.
The Life Cycle Of The Monarch Butterfly
The document summarizes the four life cycle stages of the monarch butterfly:
1) Eggs are laid on milkweed leaves and hatch into caterpillars after 4 days.
2) Caterpillars eat milkweed leaves for 2 weeks, growing and molting their skin multiple times.
3) Caterpillars then form a chrysalis and undergo metamorphosis for 2 weeks to emerge as adult butterflies.
4) Adult butterflies emerge, their wings dry and harden, and they fly to feed on flower nectar and begin the cycle again.
Pleurotus and neurospora
Neurospora is a genus of fungi that includes the species N. crassa, which is used as a model organism in biology research. It has septate, branched mycelium and reproduces asexually through macroconidia and microconidia. Sexually, it produces female ascogonia which receive nuclei from conidia via plasmogamy and develop into perithecia containing asci with ascospores. Pleurotus mushrooms are edible fungi that grow on wood. They reproduce asexually through arthroconidia produced on coremia. Sexually, dikaryotic mycelium form the fruiting bodies after karyogamy and meiosis within basidia
Har gobind khorana
Har Gobind Khorana was a pioneering biologist born in India in 1922 who helped crack the genetic code. He conducted experiments in the 1960s that demonstrated nucleotides in RNA combine to form three-letter codes that specify amino acids used to build proteins. This work earned him the 1968 Nobel Prize in Medicine jointly with Robert Holley and Marshall Nirenberg. Khorana continued his research career at MIT until retiring in 2007. He made seminal contributions to understanding how DNA is decoded to synthesize proteins and laid the foundations for modern biotechnology.
Biology 101 power point presentation on monarch butterflies
The document summarizes the life cycle of the monarch butterfly, including its egg, larva (caterpillar), pupa, and adult stages. It describes the butterfly's identification, sex differences, food sources, annual migration patterns, and threats such as habitat loss due to logging and lack of host plants. The monarch butterfly biosphere reserve in Mexico helps protect the species during its winter dormancy period.
Regulación de la expresióngénica en procariontes
El documento explica el control de la expresión genética en procariontes a través de tres mecanismos principales: 1) regulación transcripcional mediante proteínas reguladoras como represores y activadores; 2) el modelo del operón, que incluye genes estructurales, promotor, operador y proteínas reguladoras; 3) el sistema de inducción-represión que controla la síntesis de enzimas dependiendo de las condiciones ambientales.
Monarch Butterfly
The monarch butterfly goes through four life stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. As a larva, it eats milkweed and sheds its skin five times over about a month before forming a jade-colored chrysalis. Inside the chrysalis, the wings develop until the adult emerges to live for 2-5 weeks, laying one egg back on a milkweed plant to continue the cycle.
Transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes def
1. The protein DPF3b recognizes acetylation marks on histones that are important for muscle growth and heart development. This discovery expands our understanding of epigenetic regulation of genes.
2. RNA polymerase plays a key role in transcription by unwinding DNA and forming a transcription bubble to access the DNA sequence. The process of transcription initiation occurs in three steps and is conserved across organisms.
3. Understanding the mechanisms of gene expression could lead to new treatments for diseases and predictive biomarkers by discovering novel regulatory proteins.
17 - From Gene to Protein
This document provides an overview of the process by which DNA directs protein synthesis through transcription and translation. It discusses the flow of genetic information from DNA to mRNA to protein. Key points include: transcription produces messenger RNA from DNA templates in the nucleus; eukaryotic pre-mRNA is processed before translation; translation occurs in the cytoplasm using tRNA to add amino acids to growing polypeptide chains on ribosomes according to mRNA codons. The genetic code is nearly universal and specifies 20 amino acids using triplets of nucleotides.
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Biology 101 power point presentation on monarch butterflies
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Translation of Proteins.ppt
1) DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is then processed and exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
2) In the cytoplasm, mRNA attaches to ribosomes to begin translation. Amino acids are activated and attached to specific tRNAs.
3) Translation occurs as tRNAs add amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain based on the mRNA codons. Ribosomes move along the mRNA during this process until a stop codon is reached and the completed protein is released.
Transcription and Translation PowerPoint
Transcription is the process of making mRNA from DNA. It involves RNA polymerase making an mRNA complementary copy of the DNA strand. Translation is the process of using the mRNA to produce a polypeptide by linking amino acids specified by the mRNA codons. During transcription, introns are removed from pre-mRNA and exons are joined to form mature mRNA. If the parent DNA strand is A A T G C A G T, the complementary mRNA strand will be U U A C G U C A.
Biol102 chp17-pp-spr10-100508132228-phpapp02
1. George Beadle and Edward Tatum discovered that mutations in the bread mold Neurospora resulted in deficiencies of specific enzymes, leading them to propose the "one gene-one enzyme" hypothesis. (2) They identified three classes of arginine-deficient mutants, each lacking a different enzyme in the arginine synthesis pathway.
2. Through later studies, the "one gene-one enzyme" hypothesis evolved to the "one gene-one polypeptide" hypothesis, as some proteins are made of multiple polypeptide chains encoded by separate genes. The central dogma of molecular biology states that DNA directs RNA synthesis and RNA directs protein synthesis.
Biol102 chp17-pp-spr10-100508132228-phpapp02
1. George Beadle and Edward Tatum discovered that mutations in the bread mold Neurospora resulted in deficiencies of specific enzymes, leading them to propose the "one gene-one enzyme" hypothesis. (2) They identified three classes of arginine-deficient mutants, each lacking a different enzyme in the arginine synthesis pathway.
2. Through later studies, the "one gene-one enzyme" hypothesis evolved to the "one gene-one polypeptide" hypothesis, as some proteins are made of multiple polypeptide chains encoded by separate genes. The central dogma of molecular biology states that DNA directs RNA synthesis and RNA directs protein synthesis.
Biology notes-dna-and-protein-synthesis
DNA controls cellular activities and protein synthesis. It is found in the cell nucleus as a double-stranded helix made up of nucleotides. DNA replicates itself using DNA polymerase and stores the genetic code in genes that determine protein sequences. During transcription, a complementary mRNA strand is produced from DNA in the nucleus. Translation then occurs on ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome according to mRNA codons, assembling proteins from the genetic code carried by DNA.
Synthesis of Proteins or the Formation of the Conga Line
The document summarizes the process of protein synthesis from DNA to proteins. It describes how nucleic acids like DNA and RNA carry genetic information through their sequence of nucleotides. DNA is transcribed into mRNA in the nucleus, then mRNA is translated by ribosomes in the cytoplasm to produce proteins based on the mRNA's codon sequences. Transfer RNA molecules bring amino acids to the ribosome according to each codon, and the amino acids are joined through peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain.
Dna replication copy
DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA before cell division. It involves unwinding the DNA double helix and using each strand as a template to create a new partner strand through complementary base pairing. DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the new strands to replicate the DNA. This ensures each daughter cell has an exact copy of the original DNA.
Dna replication
DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA before cell division. It involves unwinding the DNA double helix and using each strand as a template to create a new partner strand. DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to each new strand. When complete, the process generates two identical DNA double helices from the original. Before a cell divides, it must replicate its DNA so that the resulting daughter cells have the same genetic information as the parent cell.
Central Dogma of Life
Disclaimer: This is not my own Powerpoint Presentation. Credits to Mindanao State University - General Santos City - College of Natural Science and Mathematics.
Transcriptionand translation
Transcription is the process of copying information from DNA to mRNA. Translation is the process of using the mRNA code to assemble a protein. The genetic code links codons, which are three nucleotide sequences in mRNA, to specific amino acids. tRNA molecules match codons to their corresponding amino acids and deliver them to the ribosome for protein assembly.
chapter 7
The document discusses key processes involved in gene expression and protein synthesis, including DNA replication, transcription, and translation. It provides details on:
1) DNA replication through semiconservative replication where each new DNA double helix contains one original and one new strand synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction.
2) Transcription of DNA into mRNA which is then translated into proteins with the help of tRNA and the ribosome.
3) Translation of mRNA into polypeptide chains using the genetic code where codons in mRNA are recognized by anticodons in tRNA to add amino acids in the correct sequence. Translation terminates when a stop codon is reached.
Biology lecture 5
The document discusses protein synthesis which involves two main phases - transcription and translation. Transcription occurs in the nucleus and involves the DNA being used as a template to produce mRNA. The mRNA then undergoes processing before being exported to the cytoplasm where translation occurs, involving ribosomes and tRNA to link amino acids together using the mRNA as a template to produce a protein.
Transcription and Translation.pptx
The document summarizes the process of protein synthesis which occurs in two main steps - transcription and translation. During transcription, a copy of mRNA is generated from DNA in the nucleus. This mRNA is then used as a template during translation, which occurs in the cytoplasm. During translation, ribosomes use the mRNA to assemble a polypeptide chain by linking amino acids specified by the mRNA codons. Three key events occur during translation - initiation, elongation, and termination to produce the final protein product.
Nucleic acids and protein synthesis
Nucleic acids DNA and RNA store genetic information as polymers of nucleotides. DNA contains the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine, while RNA contains adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil. Genetic information flows from DNA to mRNA to proteins. During transcription, DNA is copied into mRNA, and during translation the mRNA genetic code is read by tRNA and ribosomes to produce proteins.
AP Biology Ch. 14 part 2 Translation
1. The document outlines the process of translation, which involves mRNA, tRNA, and ribosomes working together to produce proteins from genetic instructions.
2. Translation occurs in three stages - initiation, elongation, and termination. During initiation, the ribosome and first tRNA bind to the mRNA start codon. Elongation adds additional amino acids one by one. Termination releases the finished protein.
3. Point mutations like substitutions, insertions, or deletions can potentially alter the genetic code and change the resulting protein sequence, but some changes may have no effect depending on redundancy in the genetic code.
Ig
The document summarizes DNA, RNA, the genetic code, and protein biosynthesis. It discusses the central dogma of molecular biology whereby DNA is transcribed into mRNA which is then translated into proteins. Key steps include DNA replication, transcription, translation, and post-translational processing. The genetic code is explained where codons in mRNA specify amino acids. Recombinant DNA technology allows joining DNA from different sources to produce recombinant proteins.
61 genetoprotein2008
This document describes the process by which genetic information stored in DNA is used to produce proteins. It explains that DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is then translated on ribosomes to produce proteins based on the mRNA's codon sequence. Key steps covered include transcription, splicing, modifications to mRNA, transfer RNA carrying amino acids, the genetic code, and protein production on ribosomes. The flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to proteins is known as the central dogma of molecular biology.
Q3 W3 Ppt 4.1 Protein Synthesis-1.pdf
The document discusses protein synthesis, which involves transcription and translation. Transcription occurs in the nucleus and involves RNA polymerase making an mRNA copy of a gene from DNA. The mRNA then undergoes processing and modification before being exported to the cytoplasm. Translation happens in the cytoplasm using ribosomes, where the mRNA sequence is read to create a polypeptide chain according to the genetic code. The genetic code is carried by DNA to RNA to proteins, which give organisms their unique traits.
IB Biology HL Transcription and Translation
I am a IB HL Biology Student. Our teacher asks students to give lectures, I gave my lecture on Transcription and Translation. Please read through slide notes, should be quite helpful. Also contains some past paper questions.
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Synthesis of Proteins or the Formation of the Conga Line
Synthesis of Proteins or the Formation of the Conga Line
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Asthma Presentation 2
- Asthma is a chronic lung condition that affects over 3 million Canadians, with no cure but it can be managed. It involves inflammation and narrowing of the airways.
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11 30 09 Notes
This document summarizes key concepts about DNA cloning and the production of human insulin. It discusses how frameshift mutations can alter proteins. It then explains that DNA technology allows genes to be cloned for research and commercial purposes. Specifically, the human gene for insulin can be inserted into bacterial plasmids, allowing bacteria to produce human insulin. The document outlines the process of using restriction enzymes to cut the human insulin gene and bacterial DNA for combining via ligation. It describes methods to identify recombinant bacterial colonies containing the human insulin gene, including using probes and autoradiography. The goal is to produce large quantities of human insulin for treatment of diabetes.
09 30 09 Notes
This document discusses the structure and function of proteins and nucleic acids. It explains that proteins are made up of amino acid monomers linked together by peptide bonds to form polypeptide chains. The specific sequence and three-dimensional folding of the polypeptide chains determines the type and function of the protein. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA are composed of sugar, base, and phosphate groups linked into long chains that carry genetic information and help regulate cellular functions. Key protein functions include structural, transport, receptor, defensive, enzymatic, sensory, and gene regulation roles in the cell.
09 28 09 Notes
The document discusses different types of lipids found in biology including fats, oils, waxes, fatty acids, and cholesterol. It describes saturated fatty acids as containing no carbon double bonds and being found in meat, while unsaturated fatty acids contain carbon double bonds and are liquid at room temperature like oils. The document also discusses essential fatty acids like omega-3 and omega-6 that should be obtained through diet as our bodies cannot produce them, and how these can help process HDL and LDL cholesterol. Phospholipids are described as molecules with one hydrophobic and one hydrophilic end that form bilayers.
09 25 09 Notes
This document discusses different types of polymers found in biology. It explains that monomers link together through dehydration synthesis to form polymers, which can then be broken down through hydrolysis. Specifically, it describes carbohydrates like monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Starch and glycogen are mentioned as examples of polysaccharides used for glucose storage. Cellulose is discussed as a fiber that makes up plant cell walls and cannot be digested by humans. Chitin is also introduced as a polymer found in arthropod exoskeletons and fungi cell walls.
09 18 09 Notes
The document discusses the formation of chemical elements from hydrogen through nuclear fusion in stars, and how elements like carbon and oxygen that make up living things were created in stellar explosions. It then explains different types of chemical bonds including ionic bonds formed through electron transfer, covalent bonds where electrons are shared, and hydrogen bonds which are weak attractions between polar molecules. Molecular shapes determined by bonding allow compounds to function as required in living cells.
09 23 09 Notes
The document discusses key concepts from biology and chemistry including the dissociation of water molecules at 25 degrees Celsius, the pH scale and how it relates to hydrogen ion concentration, and macromolecules. It also covers organic chemistry principles such as carbon's versatility in building diverse molecules through its valences and ability to form various isomers including structural, geometric, and enantiomers.
09 14 09 Notes
The document discusses the scientific process and controlled experiments. It explains that the scientific method involves forming a hypothesis and then making deductions to test it. Controlled experiments allow scientists to compare experimental groups that vary only in one factor to control groups. An example experiment tests how temperature and herbicide affect egg hatching. The document also describes how scientists use mimicry experiments with model snakes to study predator and prey relationships.
09 21 09 Notes
Water has unique properties that make it essential for life on Earth. Its polarity allows it to form hydrogen bonds, giving water high cohesion and adhesion. Cohesion allows water to move through plants, while adhesion allows water to cling to surfaces. Surface tension, from hydrogen bonding, allows small insects to walk on water. Water also moderates Earth's temperature through processes like evaporative cooling. Water is densest at 4°C and freezes to ice at 0°C. Finally, as the universal solvent, water dissolves many hydrophilic compounds essential for biological functions.
09 16 09 Notes
The document discusses basic chemistry concepts including elements, compounds, atoms, molecules, subatomic particles, isotopes, and the periodic table. Elements are substances that cannot be broken down further, while compounds consist of two or more elements combined in a fixed ratio like water (H2O). Atoms are made up of subatomic particles including neutrons, protons, and electrons. Isotopes of a given element have different numbers of neutrons, with some isotopes like carbon-14 being radioactive.
09 11 09 Notes
The document summarizes key characteristics of life and levels of biological organization. It outlines that life reproduces, responds to and adapts to its environment, shows growth and development, and maintains homeostasis. It also describes the building blocks of living things from atoms to macromolecules to cellular organization. Finally, it notes that all life uses DNA to store and inherit genetic information across generations.
10 20 09 Notes
This document discusses several ways that environmental factors and molecules can affect enzyme activity and metabolic pathways. It notes that enzyme saturation occurs when substrate concentration builds up to a maximum level, increasing the final product. Temperature and pH can also impact the rate of enzymatic reactions. Allosteric enzymes can be inhibited or activated by certain molecules to control when the enzyme is active. Competitive inhibition involves substrate molecules blocking the active site. Metabolic pathways involve a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions to produce new molecules, and feedback inhibition allows pathways to regulate themselves based on end product levels.
10 23 09 Notes
This document contains notes from a biology lecture or reading on cell division and the cell cycle. It defines key terms like chromatin, chromosomes, sister chromatids, centromere, chromatid, and explains their roles. It describes the functions of cell division in reproduction, growth, and repair. It outlines the stages of the cell cycle including interphase with the G1, S, and G2 phases, and mitosis with the prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase stages. It notes that mitosis copies chromosomes and the mitotic spindle distributes them to daughter cells. Other topics covered include the genome, prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic cells, and the Human Genome Project
10 28 09 Notes
The document summarizes key aspects of cell cycle regulation, cancer, and how cancer progresses. It discusses [1] how cell cycle checkpoints like G1 and G2 regulate cell division, [2] the differences between benign and malignant tumors and how cancer spreads through metastasis, and [3] the typical characteristics of abnormal cancer cells and the stages of a tumor's growth from an initial cell to a potentially invasive carcinoma and metastatic cancer.
10 16 09 Notes
The document discusses key concepts in biology and human energy use. It covers:
1) The structure and functions of animal and plant cells, including organelles like mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the endomembrane system.
2) Different forms of energy like chemical, electrical, mechanical, light, and heat. Energy can change forms but is never created or destroyed.
3) How living things use and transform energy, with glucose being broken down to make ATP which powers cellular work via enzymatic reactions. The second law of thermodynamics holds that entropy increases with all energy transfers.
10 26 09 Notes
This document summarizes the key stages of mitosis:
1) Prophase - chromosomes coil up, centrioles copy and move to opposite sides of the cell.
2) Metaphase - spindle fibres form and attach to align chromosomes at the center.
3) Anaphase - sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles as the centromere splits.
10 14 09 Notes
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are the main energy transformers of the cell, with mitochondria carrying out cellular respiration to break down glucose into ATP and chloroplasts carrying out photosynthesis. The cytoskeleton provides structural support to cells and also functions in cell mobility and regulation through microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. Cilia and flagella are locomotory organelles created by basal bodies and centrioles that aid in cell movement, with many short cilia or few long flagella.
10 09 09 Notes
The document provides notes about eukaryotic cell structures and their functions. It discusses the nucleus, which contains DNA and stores genetic information, and ribosomes, which produce proteins. It also describes the endomembrane system, including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes, and their roles in manufacturing membranes and cell products. Finally, it mentions vacuoles and their roles in storage and waste removal.
10 07 09 Notes
Osmosis and active transport allow movement of water and solutes across cell membranes. Osmosis occurs when water moves from areas of higher water concentration to lower across semi-permeable membranes. Active transport uses ion pumps and cotransport to move solutes against gradients. Cells use ATP as an energy source, breaking it down into ADP, to power active transport and other processes like endocytosis which involves the uptake of particles and liquids into cells through phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor mediated endocytosis.
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The document summarizes key aspects of cell membranes, including that membranes are composed of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Transmembrane proteins can transport molecules like water and ions through the membrane and perform functions like transport, enzymatic activity, and signal transduction. Membranes are selectively permeable, allowing passive transport of solutes through diffusion, facilitated diffusion using transport proteins, and osmosis of water.
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11 25 09 Notes
- 1. Notes 11-25-09 Page 190 The connection between Genes and Proteins -The study of metabolic defects provided evidence that genes specify proteins -Genes => tell cells how to build proteins -Beadle and Tatum Experiment -One gene – One polypeptide Beadle and Tatum Experiment (Metabolic pathways -Worked with fungus pathways -Final phase [d], grows from a. -As long as DNA sequences are correct, all enzymes do the right thing. -However, if gene is mutated and enzyme one does not work -A enzyme damaged, B can still transform into C and then D and work properly -A, B, C damaged, no-go, D directly would still work. -One gene affects particular enzyme, as gene makes enzyme. -One gene, one enzyme hypothesis -“One gene, one polypeptide/protein”. -Gene simply instructs how to build protein
- 2. Bacterial Protein Synthesis -Make small copy of segment of DNA describing how to make small segment of protein -mRNA – messenger RNA – copy of gene -RNA – uracil instead of thymine -Complimentary base pairing system used. mRNA is like 2nd DNA strand. -Translate DNA/RNA to protein sequence Eukaryotic Protein Synthesis -Transcription -RNA processing -Translation -link up outside nuclear pore with ribsomes, ribosomes read code -in the genetic code nucleotide triplets, RNA [codons] speicy amino acid sequence -codons tell which amino acid to place next in the polypeptide chain. -UUU = phenylalanine -UAA = leucine -page 192 – genetic code chart -AUG – Start codon – Methianine -STOP codons – UAA, UGA, UAG -First and last letter important, third not so much. -“Synonyms” Transcription – Initiation -RNA polymerase -nucleotides can only be added to the three prime end of the RNA chain, just like DNA -Sides pulled apart, temp strand read. -3 prime end toward 5 prime end read Transcription – Elongation -Complimentary base pairing, attaching to 3 prime end -Adenine -> uracil -Cytosine -> guanine -Thymine -> adenine -Guanine -> cytosine Transcription – Termination -Stop codon Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription -Introns => unusable information that needs to be cut out -reattaches important part of RNA
- 3. -spliceosomes => part enzyme, part RNA perform this job.