Physiology of equilibrium & balance
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The document discusses physiology related to human balance and equilibrium. It defines static and dynamic equilibrium and describes the key systems and structures involved in maintaining balance, including the vestibular system, cerebellum, and their interconnections. The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance through three main sections. The vestibular system detects head movement through five receptor organs in each inner ear and sends signals to the brainstem and cerebellum through the vestibular nerve and nuclei.
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The document discusses the physiology of balance and vestibular functions. It describes the major functions of the vestibular system which includes maintaining equilibrium, sensing motion and spatial orientation, and helping to stabilize eye movements and posture. It then discusses the specific structures involved, including the semicircular canals and otolith organs, and how they detect rotational and linear acceleration to provide sensory input about head movement and orientation. It concludes by discussing some of the reflexes and pathways involved in integrating vestibular information and maintaining balance and eye movements.
The Vestibular System
The document discusses the vestibular system, which detects angular and linear acceleration of the head. It has two main parts: the semicircular canals and otolith organs. The semicircular canals contain hair cells that detect rotational movement and signal the brain. The otolith organs contain hair cells and calcium crystals that detect gravity and linear acceleration. The vestibular system provides input to areas of the brainstem, cerebellum and cortex that are important for balance, posture, eye movements and awareness of head position. It discusses the anatomy and function of the vestibular system and several reflexes it controls like the vestibulo-ocular reflex.
Physiology of balance
The vestibular system helps maintain balance and stabilize gaze. It contains semicircular canals that detect rotational head movements and otolith organs that detect linear acceleration and head position relative to gravity. The vestibular nerve relays information from the inner ear to the brainstem vestibular nuclei. These nuclei integrate vestibular signals and generate reflexes that control eye movements and posture.
Vestibular apparatus
The vestibular apparatus contains the organs that sense equilibrium - the utricle, saccule, and three semicircular canals. Hair cells within these organs detect linear and angular acceleration. When stimulated, hair cells trigger nerve impulses that travel to the brainstem and cerebellum to maintain posture and balance. Disorders like vertigo, motion sickness, and Meniere's disease can disturb equilibrium by affecting the vestibular apparatus.
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Physiology of equilibrium
The vestibular system located in the inner ear helps maintain equilibrium and spatial orientation. It contains two types of sensory organs - the maculae which detect linear acceleration and position with respect to gravity, and the semicircular canals which detect angular acceleration and rotation of the head. Hair cells within these organs bend in response to movement, triggering nerve signals to the brain. The brain integrates vestibular information with other sensory inputs to coordinate muscle responses and eye movements that keep vision stable and maintain balance and posture. Damage to the vestibular system can cause vertigo, dizziness and conditions like Meniere's disease.
Vestibular system
The document discusses the vestibular apparatus, which is part of the inner ear and functions as a sensory organ for balance and equilibrium. It contains three semicircular canals oriented at right angles to detect rotational movement, as well as the utricle and saccule which contain the maculae and detect linear acceleration. Hair cells within the crista ampullaris of the semicircular canals and within the maculae transmit signals about movement and acceleration to the brainstem via the vestibular nerve. The vestibular nuclei integrate this sensory information and coordinate motor responses to maintain balance and posture.
Physiology of vestibular system
The vestibular system provides important sensory information about head movement and orientation. It consists of semicircular canals and otolith organs that detect rotational and linear acceleration. The vestibular system generates reflexes to stabilize gaze and posture. It feeds information to the brain which processes inputs from vestibular, visual, and proprioceptive systems to coordinate eye movements and maintain balance. The vestibular system is essential for spatial orientation, navigation, and regulating other bodily functions.
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Balance
The document discusses the physiology of balance and vestibular functions. It describes the major functions of the vestibular system which includes maintaining equilibrium, sensing motion and spatial orientation, and helping to stabilize eye movements and posture. It then discusses the specific structures involved, including the semicircular canals and otolith organs, and how they detect rotational and linear acceleration to provide sensory input about head movement and orientation. It concludes by discussing some of the reflexes and pathways involved in integrating vestibular information and maintaining balance and eye movements.
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The document discusses the vestibular system, which detects angular and linear acceleration of the head. It has two main parts: the semicircular canals and otolith organs. The semicircular canals contain hair cells that detect rotational movement and signal the brain. The otolith organs contain hair cells and calcium crystals that detect gravity and linear acceleration. The vestibular system provides input to areas of the brainstem, cerebellum and cortex that are important for balance, posture, eye movements and awareness of head position. It discusses the anatomy and function of the vestibular system and several reflexes it controls like the vestibulo-ocular reflex.
Physiology of balance
The vestibular system helps maintain balance and stabilize gaze. It contains semicircular canals that detect rotational head movements and otolith organs that detect linear acceleration and head position relative to gravity. The vestibular nerve relays information from the inner ear to the brainstem vestibular nuclei. These nuclei integrate vestibular signals and generate reflexes that control eye movements and posture.
Vestibular apparatus
The vestibular apparatus contains the organs that sense equilibrium - the utricle, saccule, and three semicircular canals. Hair cells within these organs detect linear and angular acceleration. When stimulated, hair cells trigger nerve impulses that travel to the brainstem and cerebellum to maintain posture and balance. Disorders like vertigo, motion sickness, and Meniere's disease can disturb equilibrium by affecting the vestibular apparatus.
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Physiology of equilibrium
The vestibular system located in the inner ear helps maintain equilibrium and spatial orientation. It contains two types of sensory organs - the maculae which detect linear acceleration and position with respect to gravity, and the semicircular canals which detect angular acceleration and rotation of the head. Hair cells within these organs bend in response to movement, triggering nerve signals to the brain. The brain integrates vestibular information with other sensory inputs to coordinate muscle responses and eye movements that keep vision stable and maintain balance and posture. Damage to the vestibular system can cause vertigo, dizziness and conditions like Meniere's disease.
Vestibular system
The document discusses the vestibular apparatus, which is part of the inner ear and functions as a sensory organ for balance and equilibrium. It contains three semicircular canals oriented at right angles to detect rotational movement, as well as the utricle and saccule which contain the maculae and detect linear acceleration. Hair cells within the crista ampullaris of the semicircular canals and within the maculae transmit signals about movement and acceleration to the brainstem via the vestibular nerve. The vestibular nuclei integrate this sensory information and coordinate motor responses to maintain balance and posture.
Physiology of vestibular system
The vestibular system provides important sensory information about head movement and orientation. It consists of semicircular canals and otolith organs that detect rotational and linear acceleration. The vestibular system generates reflexes to stabilize gaze and posture. It feeds information to the brain which processes inputs from vestibular, visual, and proprioceptive systems to coordinate eye movements and maintain balance. The vestibular system is essential for spatial orientation, navigation, and regulating other bodily functions.
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The document summarizes the vestibular system which is involved in maintaining equilibrium and balance. It describes the three main systems - vestibular, visual, and proprioceptive. The vestibular system contains the semicircular canals and otolith organs which detect head movement and gravity. The hair cells in each organ bend to detect rotational or linear acceleration and send signals to the brain. Disorders like nystagmus and vertigo can result from vestibular problems. Together, the three systems allow the brain to integrate sensory information and coordinate muscle movements to keep the body balanced.
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2) Muscle spindles are stretch receptors that provide sensory feedback on muscle length and rate of stretch. Their afferents signal to the CNS and regulate motor neuron activity.
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1) The meninges of the brain including the three meningeal layers, the two intracranial spaces, and the four dural septa.
2) Intracranial hemorrhage.
3) The dural venous sinuses including the eight main sinuses and the contents and communications of the cavernous sinus.
Physiology of hearing 21st july 11
The document summarizes the physiological basis of hearing. It describes the functions of the external ear, middle ear, and inner ear. The middle ear increases pressure and attenuates sound waves through the ossicular lever action and attenuation reflex. The inner ear performs mechanical frequency analysis through the place principle and sensory transduction by converting sound waves to neural impulses through hair cells and neurotransmitters. Lesions in different parts of the auditory system cause different types and severities of deafness. Common tests to differentiate conductive and sensorineural deafness include Rinne's test and Weber's test.
Opioid analgesics
This document summarizes key information about opioid analgesics including:
1. It classifies opioids based on their strength from strong to weak and lists examples in each category.
2. It outlines several clinical uses of opioids such as for analgesia, cough suppression, and treatment of opioid dependence.
3. It describes the pharmacokinetics of opioids including absorption, metabolism, and ability to cross the placental barrier and affect fetuses.
4. It explains the mechanism of action of opioids including their binding to μ, δ, and κ receptors in the brain and spinal cord to produce effects like analgesia and respiratory depression.
Olfaction
The document discusses the sense of smell (olfaction). It describes how odorants are detected by olfactory receptor neurons in the nasal cavity and signals are sent to brain structures like the olfactory bulb and limbic system. It notes that dogs have a much more sensitive sense of smell than humans, with more olfactory receptor neurons. The summary provides an overview of the key topics and structures involved in the sense of smell.
Neurovasculature and lymphatic drainage of head and neck
This document discusses the neurovasculature and lymphatic drainage of the head and neck. It outlines the arteries supplying this region, including the common carotid artery, external and internal carotid arteries, circle of Willis, and subclavian arteries. It also details the veins that drain the head and neck, such as the diploic veins, emissary veins, facial veins, and internal and external jugular veins. Finally, it examines the lymphatic drainage territories and nodes of the head and neck, noting how infections in certain facial areas can spread dangerously to the cavernous sinus.
Spinal cord reflexes
Spinal cord reflexes involve a reflex arc with an afferent limb, efferent limb, and central nervous system center. Reflexes can be classified as clinical (based on stimulus location), anatomical (based on spinal cord location), physiological (based on muscle response), or based on innate versus learned response. Examples of reflexes include the stretch reflex, withdrawal reflex, and crossed extensor reflex. Spinal reflexes integrate afferent and efferent signaling without brain involvement.
Speech
The document discusses various areas of the brain involved in language processing and production. It describes Wernicke's area in the temporal lobe which processes auditory and visual language inputs and connects to Broca's area in the frontal lobe which processes language outputs. Damage to these areas can cause different types of aphasias - nonfluent aphasia results from Broca's area lesions and causes slow, effortful speech, while fluent aphasia comes from Wernicke's area lesions and produces meaningless speech. The angular gyrus also contributes to language processing and lesions there cause anomic aphasia characterized by naming difficulties.
Ventricular system of brain final
The document describes the ventricular system of the brain, including:
1) It is comprised of the lateral ventricles, third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct, and fourth ventricle.
2) Cerebrospinal fluid is produced by the choroid plexus and circulates through the ventricles before being reabsorbed into the venous sinuses.
3) The lateral ventricles are located within the cerebral hemispheres and have anterior, body, and posterior horns.
The cerebellum demo
The cerebellum is located in the posterior cranial fossa behind the pons and medulla. It has two hemispheres divided by a median vermis, and contains three lobes in each hemisphere. The cerebellum consists of grey matter cortex and nuclei, including the dentate, emboliform, globosus, and fastigii nuclei. It connects to other brain regions via three peduncles - superior, middle, and inferior. The cerebellum coordinates voluntary movements and controls muscle tone, posture, and equilibrium. Damage results in symptoms like hypotonia, intention tremors, ataxia, and nystagmus.
Structural organization of nervous system new
The document provides an overview of the structural organization of the nervous system. It discusses how the nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS connects the CNS to peripheral structures. The document describes the major components of the CNS like the spinal cord, brainstem, cerebellum, and cerebrum. It also summarizes the organization of the PNS including cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
Scalp
The scalp consists of 5 layers - skin, connective tissue, aponeurosis, loose areolar tissue, and pericranium. The clinically important layer is the aponeurosis, as lacerations through this layer can cause gaping of the wound requiring suturing. The scalp receives innervation from the trigeminal and cervical nerves and is supplied by the supratrochlear, supraorbital, zygomaticotemporal, auriculotemporal, lesser occipital, and greater occipital nerves.
Ear final
The document describes the development of the ear, including:
1. The external, middle, and internal ear develop from the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.
2. The internal ear develops from the otic placode and forms the membranous labyrinth which ossifies to form the bony labyrinth.
3. The cochlea develops as a coiling outgrowth from the saccule and forms the organ of Corti which contains sensory hair cells.
4. The middle ear develops from the pharyngeal pouches and arches and contains the auditory ossicles and tympanic cavity.
5. Congenital anomalies can affect the
Dorsal column pathway
The dorsal column pathway carries sensations of highly localized touch, pressure, vibration, and proprioception. It involves the fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus cuneatus spinal tracts. First order sensory neurons carry information from cutaneous receptors and proprioceptors and synapse with second order neurons in the dorsal horn or medullary nuclei. These second order neurons transmit impulses to the thalamus. Third order neurons then project this information to the primary somatosensory cortex.
Treatment of parknsonism
Treatment of Parkinson's disease involves several classes of drugs:
1) Levodopa is the metabolic precursor to dopamine and the most effective treatment when given with a peripheral decarboxylase inhibitor like carbidopa.
2) Dopamine agonists like pramipexole and ropinirole activate dopamine receptors.
3) MAO-B inhibitors like selegiline and rasagiline decrease the breakdown of dopamine.
Tousif, role of receptors
The document discusses sensory perception and the role of receptors. It describes the basic process of stimulus reception, transduction, and transmission via receptors and sensory neurons. It classifies receptors by structure, location, modality, and adaptation properties. Receptors convert stimuli into receptor potentials, which may generate action potentials. Rapidly adapting receptors signal changes in stimuli while slowly adapting receptors signal sustained stimuli.
Triangles of the neck ppt year 1
The document describes the triangles of the neck. It discusses the anterior and posterior triangles, which are divided by the sternocleidomastoid muscle. The posterior triangle contains nerves like the spinal accessory nerve and brachial plexus. It is further divided by the omohyoid muscle into the supraclavicular and occipital triangles. The anterior triangle contains the carotid vessels and is divided into the submental, submandibular, carotid, and muscular triangles. Both triangles contain important muscles and nerves.
Diencephalon
The diencephalon develops from the forebrain vesicle. It consists of the third ventricle and structures that form its boundaries, extending from the interventricular foramen anteriorly to where the third ventricle becomes continuous with the aqueduct posteriorly. Key structures that develop include the thalamus, hypothalamus, pineal body, and mammillary bodies. The third ventricle cavity develops from the diencephalon cavity and a small part of the telencephalon cavity.
Development of brain
1. The brain develops from three primary vesicles and their outgrowths that appear during the 4th and 5th weeks of development. Brain flexures form and influence the shape and organization of brain regions.
2. Specific cell groups in the basal and alar plates of the hindbrain, midbrain, and developing brainstem give rise to various nuclei and nerve fibers that contribute to different functional components involved in motor and sensory functions.
3. Histogenesis occurs in the developing cerebellum, with neuronal and glial cells migrating and differentiating into the distinct layers that characterize the adult cerebellar cortex.
cranial nerves 2 and 3
The optic nerve has the primary function of vision and carries signals from the retina to the optic chiasm, optic tract, lateral geniculate body, optic radiation, and visual cortex. The oculomotor nerve originates in the midbrain and innervates the extraocular muscles that control eye movement and the intrinsic eye muscles that control pupil size and lens accommodation. Damage to these cranial nerves can cause issues like ptosis, squinting, pupil dilation, lost accommodation, and double vision.
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Physiology of equilibrium & balance
- 1. Physiology of Body Equilibrium & Balance SYED TOUSIF AHMED
- 2. Centre of gravity To balance the centre of gravity must be above the support point.
- 3. Physiology Of Body Balance
- 4. Physiology Of Body Balance
- 7. BALANCE Anticipatory Mechanisms (internal) Proactive Mechanisms (external) Reactive Mechanisms Sensory Systems Body Schema Neuro-muscular Synergies Musculo-skeletal Components
- 8. Balance and Orientation Pathways
- 12. Figure 12.17b (b) Medulla oblongata Flocculonodular lobe Choroid plexus of fourth ventricle Posterior lobe Arbor vitae Cerebellar cortex Anterior lobe Cerebellar peduncles • Superior • Middle • Inferior
- 13. Cerebellum Cortico cerebellum Vestibulo cerebellum Spinocerebellum
- 18. Granule cell axons ascend to the molecular layer, bifurcate and form parallel fibers that run parallel to folia forming excitatory synapses on Purkinje cell dendrites. Cerebellar cortex also has several types of inhibitory interneurons: basket cells, Golgi cells, and stellate cells. Purkinje cell axon is only output of cerebellar cortex, is inhibitory and projects to the deep nuclei and vestibular nuclei. Deep nuclei axons are the most common outputs of the cerebellum (excitatory).
- 21. Cerebellar Output Pathways Lesions of lateral cerebellum affect distal limb coordination. Medial lesions affect mainly trunk control, posture, balance, and gait. Cerebellar deficits occur ipsilateral to the lesion because cerebellar outputs go to the contralateral side and then motor pathways decussate back to the original side (“double cross-over”). Vermis lesions do not cause unilateral deficits because medial muscle groups typically receive bilateral UMN inputs.
- 22. Static Equilibrium 1) keep the body in a desired position , Static equilibrium – The equilibrium is maintained in a FIXED POSITION , usually while stood on one foot. maintenance of body posture relative to gravity while the body is still.
- 23. Dynamic Equilibrium 2) move the body in a controlled way . Dynamic equilibrium The equilibrium must be maintained while performing a task which involves MOVEMENT e.g. Walking the beam. – maintenance of the body posture (mainly the head) in response to sudden movements. Tracking a moving object.
- 30. Static Equilibrium Inside the vestibule are two chambers : utricle and saccule . Regions of hair cells and supporting cells called maculae . Otoliths – “ear rocks”
- 32. Maculae
- 34. the vestibular labyrinth Anterior Lateral Posterior
- 35. Otolithic membrane Hair cell Anatomy: Maculae of Utricle or Saccule Physiology: Linear acceleration of head
- 43. THE END