The vestibular system provides important sensory information about head movement and orientation. It consists of semicircular canals and otolith organs that detect rotational and linear acceleration. The vestibular system generates reflexes to stabilize gaze and posture. It feeds information to the brain which processes inputs from vestibular, visual, and proprioceptive systems to coordinate eye movements and maintain balance. The vestibular system is essential for spatial orientation, navigation, and regulating other bodily functions.
Mechanism of balance & vestibular function test Dr Utkal MishraDr Utkal Mishra
This powerpoint elaborates the mechanism of balance & anatomy of vestibular apparutus. It also depicts the anatomy & physiology of haircells in detail. I also explained the vestibular function tests used for diagnosis of various vestibular disorders.
BRAINSTEM EVOKED RESPONSE AUDIOMETRY (BERA), AUDIOTORY BRAINSTEM RESPONSE (ABR)Girish S
Neurologic objective, noninvasive test of auditory brainstem function in response to auditory (click) stimuli. It’s a set of seven positive waves recorded during the first 10 milli seconds after a click stimuli. They are labeled as I - VII. Also called Jewet bumps.
CONGENITAL MALFORATION OF EAR AND ITS MANAGEMENTabhijeet89singh
CONGENITAL MALFORMATION OF MIDDLE AND EXTERNAL EAR AND SURGICAL MANAGEMENT OF MICROTIA AND CONGENITAL AURAL ATRESIA PRESENTED AS A SEMINAR IN DEPARTMENT OF ENT PGIMER CHANDIGARH
Mechanism of balance & vestibular function test Dr Utkal MishraDr Utkal Mishra
This powerpoint elaborates the mechanism of balance & anatomy of vestibular apparutus. It also depicts the anatomy & physiology of haircells in detail. I also explained the vestibular function tests used for diagnosis of various vestibular disorders.
BRAINSTEM EVOKED RESPONSE AUDIOMETRY (BERA), AUDIOTORY BRAINSTEM RESPONSE (ABR)Girish S
Neurologic objective, noninvasive test of auditory brainstem function in response to auditory (click) stimuli. It’s a set of seven positive waves recorded during the first 10 milli seconds after a click stimuli. They are labeled as I - VII. Also called Jewet bumps.
CONGENITAL MALFORATION OF EAR AND ITS MANAGEMENTabhijeet89singh
CONGENITAL MALFORMATION OF MIDDLE AND EXTERNAL EAR AND SURGICAL MANAGEMENT OF MICROTIA AND CONGENITAL AURAL ATRESIA PRESENTED AS A SEMINAR IN DEPARTMENT OF ENT PGIMER CHANDIGARH
A sense of proper sensory processing of head motion and the coordination of visual and postural movements to maintain equilibrium
Posture is a subsconcious adjustment of tone in different muscle so as to maintain balance during displacement of the body caused by gravity or acceleration
Balance is the ability to maintain the body center of mass over its base support
The vestibular system is an intricate organization that involves multiple levels of sensory processing to achieve this goal
vestibular apparatus, choclear process, process of hearing and balance in human, function and component of vestibular apparatus, types of cells present in vestibular apparatus
these is 20 minutes presentation on vestibular system,presented by girmay fitiwi addis ababa university ,medical faculity departement of medical physiology.
The following power point presentation talks about neural control and coordination in humans. In this, we study about neurons, the conduction of nerve impulse, about Central Nervous System and also about sense organs
USMLE NEUROANATOMY 03 Descending pathway motor tract anatomy .pdfAHMED ASHOUR
Descending tracts are neural pathways in the central nervous system (CNS) that carry motor signals from the brain to the spinal cord. These tracts are responsible for transmitting commands from the brain to motor neurons, which then execute voluntary movements. These descending tracts collectively contribute to the coordination and execution of voluntary and involuntary movements. Injuries or lesions affecting the descending tracts can lead to various motor deficits, depending on the location and extent of the damage. Understanding the organization and function of these tracts is essential for diagnosing and treating motor disorders and neurological conditions.
This presentation discusses oropharyngeal tumors and their management. It contains a few surgical video clippings embedded from my you tube uploads. If you get a security warning just give yes to view the video clipping. I assure you it is safe
This presentation provides insight into the unique software created using eiki engine. This is available in 2 flavors, one which runs right out of a pendrive the other one is installable using dvd media. This is an initiative of drtbalu's otolaryngology online
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,ABORTION WOMEN’S CLINIC +27730423979 IN women clinic we believe that every woman should be able to make choices in her pregnancy. Our job is to provide compassionate care, safety,affordable and confidential services. That’s why we have won the trust from all generations of women all over the world. we use non surgical method(Abortion pills) to terminate…Dr.LISA +27730423979women Clinic is committed to providing the highest quality of obstetrical and gynecological care to women of all ages. Our dedicated staff aim to treat each patient and her health concerns with compassion and respect.Our dedicated group ABORTION WOMEN’S CLINIC +27730423979 IN women clinic we believe that every woman should be able to make choices in her pregnancy. Our job is to provide compassionate care, safety,affordable and confidential services. That’s why we have won the trust from all generations of women all over the world. we use non surgical method(Abortion pills) to terminate…Dr.LISA +27730423979women Clinic is committed to providing the highest quality of obstetrical and gynecological care to women of all ages. Our dedicated staff aim to treat each patient and her health concerns with compassion and respect.Our dedicated group of receptionists, nurses, and physicians have worked together as a teamof receptionists, nurses, and physicians have worked together as a team wwww.lisywomensclinic.co.za/
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
2. Introduction
All sensory systems have evolved in order to ensure better species survival.
Vestibular organ is the most primitive phylogenetically
Orientation of the individual in relation to environment is the most important sensation for aquatic
organism
Mammalian vestibular system generates information and feeds them to the brain
3. Functions of vestibular system
Gaze stabilization ensuring that the field of vision stays focused to the subject of interest
Body position & locomotion to enable balanced locomotion without compromising body posture
Orientation of the body with respect to gravity
For readjusting autonomic functions after body reorientation
4. Vestibular system input system
Visual
Vestibular
Proprioceptive
Hearing cues (less important)
Brain process these inputs leading to various outcomes like reflexes and other responses
5. Vestibular system reflexes &
responses
Vestibulo ocular reflex (VOR). This ensures gaze stabilization
Vestibulo spinal reflex – Ensures maintenance of upright position
Vestibulo colic reflex – Ensures head stabilization in space
Orientation and in higher species, navigation and perception of self position with respect to
surroundings and gravity is mediated by vestibular cortex.
It influences circadian rhythm
6. Additional factors playing a role in
vestibular sensation
Learning
Memory
Drugs
Ageing
Environmental conditions
9. Cristae
1. These receptors are located at the ampullated end
of the three semicircular canals
2. These receptors respond to angular acceleration
3. Semicircular canals sense head rotations
4. Crista is the sensory epithelium that contains hair
cells. The hair cells take the form of bundles and they
extend out of the crista into a gelatinous mass the
cupula. Cupula bridges the width of the ampulla
forming a barrier through which endolymph cannot
circulate
5. The cupula is distorted by the fluid in the
membranous canal when the head rotates
10. Physiology of Crista
Hair cells of crista are organized with kinocilia
pointing in the same direction.
when the cupula moves in the appropriate
direction, the entire population of hair cells is
depolarized and activity in all of the
innervating axons increases. When the cupula
moves in the opposite direction, the
population is hyperpolarized and neuronal
activity decreases. Deflections orthogonal to
the excitatory-inhibitory direction produce
little or no response.
11. Contd…
Passive forms of movements like in aeroplanes, merry-go-rounds, cars, rollercoasters generate more intricate
movements and can readily induce motion sickness since the vestibular apparatus is not adapted to these kinds of
motions.
Three forces act upon the endolymph and cupula in the canal. These include:
1. The inertial force, proportional to the mass of the endolymph and cupula.
2. The elastic restoring force of the cupula that positions the cupula back to the centre position after stimulation.
3. The viscous forces that act upon the fluid when sliding past the internal wall of the tube. This force is dependent on
the speed of relative movement of endolymph with respect to the wall.
12. Hair cells of crista
Two types:
Type I hair cells: Flask shaped, with a single cup like nerve terminal surrounding the base
Type II hair cells: Cylindrical cells with multiple nerve terminals at the base. From the upper surface
of each cell project a single hair known as the kinocilium and a number of other cilia known as the
stereocilia. The kinocilium is thicker and is located at one edge of the cell. These sensory hair cells
are surrounded by supporting cells that display microvilli on their upper ends
14. Maculae
These receptors are in the otolith
organs (utricle & saccule)
Macula of utricle lies in its floor in
a horizontal plane
Macula of saccule lies in its medial
wall in a vertical plane
These receptors sense the position
of the head in response to gravity and
linear acceleration
15. Otolith organs
Continuous
G
r
a
v
I
T
y
Acceleration
Due to gravity
needs to be
monitored
continuously
Otolith organs sense gravity
These organs
Also detect
linear
accelerations
Einstein's equivalence principle states that no
single physical device can distinguish gravity
from linear acceleration. This really poses a
difficult scenario for the central nervous system
since otoliths cannot differentiate between
linear acceleration and tilt since only the
deflection of teh base of the hair cells are
encoded and sent to the brain. During natural
movements (both active & passive), the otolith
organs sense the sum of all accelerations acting
on the head and interpret these signals to
initiate postural and eye reflexes mediated by
the vestibular nuclei, directing appropriate
signals to the limb, trunk, and neck muscles via
the vestibulospinal tracts or to the eye muscles
via the vestibulo ocular reflex (VOR). The
interplay of several senses at the same time
(visual, vestibular and proprioceptive) enables
the CNS to cope up with the ambiguity of linear
accelerations under normal conditions. However
in darkness when visual stimulus is rather
useless it relies on the vestibular cues.
16. Ultrastructure of Macula
It consists of two parts
Sensory neuroepithelium of type I and type II cells as seen in crista of semicircular canal
Otolithic membrane made up of gelatinous mass on top of which are seen crystals of calcium
carbonate (otoconia)
The cilia of the hair cells project into the gelatinous layer
17. Vestibulo ocular reflex
Peripheral sensors transmit motion details
to brain through frequency encoding
Brain continuously receives FM signals
Normal resting discharge rate is about 90
spikes / second
18. Features of VOR
1. During head rest, hair cells in both semicircular canals have a resting discharge of 90 spikes / second.
2. Endolymph fluid lags behind within each SSC due to inertia.
3. In right sided head turning, the leading SSC (the right), the stereocilia bends towards the kinocilium.
4. During the postulated right head turn, the discharge rate increases in the leading right ear from 90 to 120 spikes /
second.
5. In the following SSC i.e. the left, the stereocilia bend away from the kinocilium
6. The discharge rate decreases in the following left ear from 90 to 20 spikes / second
7. The vestibular nuclei interprets the difference in the discharge rates between the left and right SSC's as movement
towards the right, and triggers the oculomotor nuclei to drive the eyes to the left to maintain gaze stabilization.
19. Vestibulo spinal reflex
The purpose of this reflex is to stabilize the body
It involves motor output to the muscles below the neck
Sensory input is from the canals and otolith or both
When head is tilted to one side both the canals and otoliths are stimulated
The vestibular nerves and vestibular nucleus are activated
Impulses are transmitted via the lateral and media vestibulo spinal tracts to the spinal cord
Extensor activity is induced on the side to which the head is inclined, and flexor activity is induced
on the opposite side
20. Cervical reflexes
Cervico ocular reflex – Consists of eye movements driven by neck proprioceptors. This is relevant
when considering recovery from vestibular lesions
Cervico spinal reflex – Also known as tonic neck reflex. This involves changes in the limb position
driven by neck afferent activity. It interacts with VOR. This involves extension of the limb on the side
to which the chin is pointed and flexion of the limb on the opposite side.
Cervicocollic reflex – This reflex stabilizes the head on the body. Changes in the neck position,
creates opposition to that stretch by reflexive contraction of neck muscles. This reflex has longer
latency than vestibulocollic reflexes.
21. Vestibulo sympathetic reflex
Getting up from recumbent position creates lot of orthostatic stress on the body
This is due to pooling of blood in the lower parts of the body
About 800 ml of blood gets pooled in dependent portions of the body
This reflex increases the heart rate and blood pressure ensuring steady blood supply to the brain
22. Central projections of vestibular
system
Movements sensed by vestibular organs on the right and left sides converge into the vestibular
nuclei after passing through the ganglion of scarpa. The semicircular canals and otolith maculae
project to different portions of vestibular nuclei
Vestibular nuclei triggers other brain centers in order to maintain gaze stabilization as well as body
stabilization
Superior vestibular nerve gets afferents from horizontal and anterior canals as well as from the
utricular macula and antero superior region of saccular macula
Inferior vestibular nerve is formed by fibers from the posterior canal and saccular macula
Caloric tests and rotatory tests evaluate the horizontal canal (superior vestibular nerve) and cVEMP
(collic vestibular evoked myogenic potentials) evaluates the inferior vestibular nerve
23. Cont..
Vestibular primary efferents project into the
vestibular nuclear complex in the pontomedullary
region of the brain stem and the cerebellum. Nodulus
and uvula gets the maximum projection
Superior, lateral, medial and descending vestibular
nuclei
Afferents from scc’s and otoliths enter vestibular
nuclear complex at the level of lateral vestibular
nucleus and rostral descending vestibular nucleus.
They then divide into ascending and descending
pathways. The ascending pathway projects into the
superior vestibular nerve and further on to the
cerebellum. The descending branch innervates the
central region of the vestibular nuclear complex
24. Accepted facts…
1. SCC's project to all four vestibular nuclei with the most heavy projection to the Medial vestibular nerve
and Superior vestibular nerve
2. Saccular afferents project strongly to the Dorsal vestibular nerve, the INT8 and the Y-group and weakly
to other vestibular nuclei
3. Utricle mainly projects to the lateral and dorsal portions of the Medial vestibular nucleus, the ventral
and lateral portions of the Superior vestibular nerve and the rostral portion of the Dorsal vestibular nerve.
Afferents from the non vestibular systems like optokinetic system, the neck proprioceptive system and the
cerebellar purkinje cells also project into the vestibular nuclear complex.
Within the vestibular brainstem nuclei there are commissural projections reinforcing the vestibular inputs.
25. Ewald’s Laws
First law: Stimulation of semicircular canal causes movement of the eyes in the plane of the
stimulated canal.
Second law: In the horizontal canals an ampullopetal endolymphatic movement causes a greater
stimulation than an ampullofugal one
Third law: In the vertical canals the reverse is true.
.