This document provides an overview of apple breeding. It discusses the origin and domestication of apples, with their center of origin including Asia Minor, the Caucasus, central Asia, Himalayan India and Pakistan and western China. Apple is a diploid species that reproduces sexually. The document outlines important apple rootstocks and their characteristics, as well as objectives for rootstock breeding including resistance to pests and diseases. It also discusses limitations in conventional apple breeding and new techniques to address these limitations.

1. Apple Breeding
1
Speaker by
Gangaram Rana
Ph.D scholars .
Dept. Fruit Sciences
IGKV,RAIPUR

2. Introduction:-
 B.N. - Malus x domestica
 Family- Rosaceae
 Subfamily- Maloideae
 Chromosome number is x = 17,2x =34.
 The genus Malus has 25 to 30 species and several subspecies of so-called
crabapples
 Apple is an allopolyploid, but behaves like a diploid.
 Apple undoutbtedly the most important temperate fruit.
 Deciduous fruit tree.
 Among the fruit apple has long storage life
 Major sugar present in apple is sorbitol
 Type of fruit is Pome
 Edible portion is fleshy thalamus (mesocarp
 Dry temperate region is most suitable for apple cultivation in India.
 Among the fruits apple have long storage life.
 H.P is known as the APPLE BOWL OFINDIA.
 Apple constitutes 2.7% of the production of major fruits.

3. Origin of the word apple
https://www.google.com/search?q=origin+of+the+word+apple&rlz=1C1CHBF_enUS863US
863

4. Origin and Domestication
 Although Malus species are found throughout the northern hemisphere
The centre of origin of apple includes Asia Minor, the Caucasus, central
Asia, Himalayan India and Pakistan and western China, areas where at
least 25 native species of Malus occur.
The Old Silk Road crossing from the Black Sea region to western China
was important in the evolution of cultivated apple
(Juniper et al., 1998 ; Zhou 1999 ; Luby et al., 2001 )

5. The Domestication History of Apples Revealed by Genomic Analysis (2017).
https://www.patentdocs.org/2017/09/the-domestication-history-of-apples-revealed-by-genomic-analysis.html

6. Apple evolutionary map along the west and east bounds of the Silk
Route with center of origin at Kazakhstan in central Asia (2017)
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-00336-7

7. Evolutionary Mechanisms:-
 In 1753, Linnus in his ‘Species Plantarum’ used the name Pyrus
malus for the common cultivated apple.
 Millers in 1768 proposed Malus as generic name for the apples.
 But Borkhausen in 1803 had proposed the name M. domestica.
 Cultivated apple has been classified as pumila group.
 The primary centre of origin of Malus Cultivars is the region of
Asia Minor, Central Asia, Himalayan India, Pakistan and Western
China.

8. Region Common species found
NorthAmerica M. Angustifolia, M. ioensis, M. coronaria M. Fusca
Europe M. Florentina, M. pumila, M. sylvestris
Asia Minor M. pumila, M. trilobata
Himalaya M. sikkimensis
SW China M. prattii, M. yunnanesis
SE China M. micromalus
Central China M. honanensis, M. hupehensis
NW China M. kansuensis,M. sieversii
N & NE China M. asiatica, M. baccata, M. prunifolia
Taiwan M. doumen
Japan M. baccata, M. sieboldii
M. Halliana, M. sargentii, M. tschonoskii
Korea M. asiatica, M. prunifolia
Major species of Malus found
(Way et al., 1990 )

9. GERMPLASM RESOURCES
• Malus collection has 6734 total accessions, of which 5226 are trees in
the field and 1508 are seedlots
• Good collection of Germplasm has been collected in 19 research centre out of
which 11 are located in North West Himalayan region such as :
 NBPGR , Phagli ( New Delhi)
 CITH, Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir)
 IARI , New Delhi
 Fruit Research centre , Shalimar
 Hill Fruit Research centre , in Chaubattia and Chakrata ,U.P
 Himachal Agricultural University , H.P

10. Genetic Resources
The importance of conservation and characterization of germplasm is recognized worldwide
(Büttner et al. 2004 )
The collection, maintenance, characterization, and utilization of wildapples
I) Scion
The European Cooperative Program for Plant Genetic Resources has a Malus/Pyrus working
group)
(http://www.wcpgr.cgiar.org/workgroups/malus_pyrus/malus-pyrus.html), The group
represents a total of over 20,000 accessions in 13 countries.
GRIN (Genetic Resources Information Network) database. In addition, for ex situ
conservation of apple, a seed-based core collection for Malus sieversii has been
established
(Volk et al. 2005, Richards, 2008) .

11. II) Rootstock
III) Germplasm Diversity
 Some novel objectives of Rootstock germplasm include the use of apomictic species for seed
production of clonal stocks, the selection for resistance/tolerance to specific environmental
rigors of the root such as drought, water logging, salinity, nutrient deficiency, and other
challenges.
 Genetic diversity and population structure has been examined in Malus sieversii , a wild
progenitor species of domesticated apple (Richards et al. 2008 ).
 Examination of almost 950 individuals from 88 half-sib families from eight M. sieversii
populations from Kazakhstan was mostly congruent with geographical location.
 Early studies in this area and researchers continue to try to exploit genes from apple’s wild
relatives for resistance to studying drought, winter hardiness and nutrient uptake. Most
related species of apples have been used in resistance breeding, with Malus floribunda
prevalent in scab resistant material. (Luby et al. 1999 )

12. Species Useful Characteristics
Malus angstifolia Ornamental tree
Malus astrosanguinea Resistance to fire blight
Malus baccata Monogenic (Vb, Vbj) resistance to apple scab. Source to
resistance to powdery mildew, Semi-Dwarf rootstock
Malus coronana Better source of precocity, ornamental tree
Malus floribunda Monogenic (Vf) resistance to apple scab, semi- dwarfing
rootstock
Malus fusca Resistance to fire blight
Malus hupehensis Source of gene resistance to woolly apple aphid
Malus prunifolia Better source of precocity, cold hardiness, Semi- Dwarf rootstock
M. sargentii Resistance to apple scab, powdery mildew, source of gene
resistance to Wholly apple aphid.
M. sieversii Monogenic (Vr) resistance to apple scab
Useful Horticulture Traits Carried by Apple Species
Chada et al.,2016

13. Preferred
symbol
Gene Effect Source Reference
Er Eriosoma resistance Northern Spy Knight et al. (1962)
Sd1
Dysaphis devecta resistance ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’ Alston & Briggs(1968)
Sd2
Dysaphis devecta resistance ‘Northern Spy’ Alston (1970)
Sd3
Dysaphis devecta resistance M x robusta
MAL59/9
Alston (1970)
Sd Dysaphis devecta resistance ‘McIntosh’ Alston & Briggs(1977)
Sm Dysaphis plantaginea
hypersensitivity
M. Robusta
MAL59/9
Alston &
Briggs
(1970)
Pest Resistant Genes of Apple
Jules Janick and James, 1996

14. Preferred
symbol3 Gene Effect Source Reference
Gb Glomerella cingulata susceptibility ‘Golden Delicious’
Thompson & Taylor (1971)
Ga-b,Ga-b
Gymnosporangium (resistance)
‘Spartan’
Aldwinckle et al. (1977)
Pc Phytophthora cactorum (
resistance)
‘Northern Spy’ Alston (1970b)
Pl1
Podosphaera leucotricha
(resistance)
M x robusta MAL59/9 Knight &Alston (1968)
Pl2
Podosphaera leucotricha
(resistance) M x zumi MAL 68/5 Knight &Alston(1968)
Ps1 Phyllosticta solitaria (susceptibility ‘ Jonathan’
Mowry & Dayton (1964)
Vf Venturia inaequalis (resistance) M floribunda 821
Dayton & Williams (1968)
Vbj
Venturia inaequalis (resistance) M. Hansen’s baccata 2
Mowry and Dayton (1964)
Vm Venturia inaequalis (Resistance)
M. Micromalus 245-38 Dayton & Williams (1968)
Vr
Venturia inaequalis
(resistance)
Russian sdlg. R12740-
7A
Dayton &
Williams (1968)
Disease ResistantGenes of Apple
Jules Janick and James, 1996

15. Preferred
symbol Gene Effect Source Reference
al albinism ‘Rev. W. Wilks’
Hall & Crane (1933);
Crane & Lawrence
(1933)
bu1 bu2 burrknots ‘Northern Spy’ Decourtye (1967)
Co compact habit ‘McIntosh’(Wijcik) Lapins & Watkins (1973)
d1 dwarf Ottawa 521 Alston (1976)
d2
dwarf ‘Northern Spy’ Decourtye (1967)
d3 dwarf Ottawa 521 Alston (1976)
d4
dwarf ‘Starkrimson’ Alston (1976)
G dwarf re-growth promoter Ottawa 521 Alston (1976)
l
pale green lethal
chlorophyll
deficiency
‘Northern Spy’
‘ Calville Blanc d’Hiver’
Klein et al. (1961) Williams (1958)
nb necrotic bark ‘ Reinette du Mans’ Lespinasse (unpub.)
R purple pigmentation in all
tissues
‘Baskatong’
Lewis & Crane (1938); Sampson &
Cameron (1965)
Plant attribute genes ofApple
Jules Janick and James, 1996

16. Breeding objectives
The scion breeding objectives are:-
• Red colour fruit
• Early maturity
• High yield
• Superior dessert
• Storage quality
• Resistance to scab.
Rootstock breeding objectives are:-
• Rootstocks capable of surviving under wide range of environmental
conditions,
• Inducing precocity
• Enhancing productivity
• Fruit qualities in scion are required to be bred.

17. Limitation in Conventional Breeding
 Slow and lengthy
 Long juvenile period
 Self incompatibility
 Polygenic control of most of the
horticultural important traits
 Large population required to recover
recombinants

18.  MI series (Merton Immune) released from East Malling
Research Station (EMRS) , Kent, England
 MM series (Malling Merton) released from John Innes
Instituites, England
 MM series specifically bred for wooly apple aphid
 All rootstocks of MM series are rest. To wooly apple aphid
 East Malling Long Ashton (EMLA) series of rootstock is rest. to
viruses

19. Current Apple Rootstocks:
Currently in the United States the most common apple rootstocks are M.9,
M.26, B.9, M.7, MM.106, MM.111.
Category Rootstocks Features
Dwarfing M9 Suitable for HDP in flat and
irrigated areas only
Semi - dwarf M4, M7, M106,M24 HDP , Resistant to wooly apple aphid
Semi-
vigorous
M111, MM104 Drought tolerant and rest. to wooly aphid
Vigorous Merton 793 Early fruiting, rest. to wooly aphid
and collar rot
Ultra dwarf M27 Suitable for HDP
 30% of the rootstocks are
M.9,
 20% are B.9,
 20% are M.26,
 10% are M.7,
 9% are MM.106
 5% are MM.111,
 2% are G.16
 1% are G.30

20. SOME NEW APPLE ROOTSTOCKS
Name of
rootstocks
Remarks
Geneva-11 Moderately susceptible to wooly apple aphid. Fire blight resistance is
excellent.
Geneva -16 Reported to be highly fire blight resistant. Produces a tree size
between M 9 and M 26.
G16 should only be budded or grafted to certified, virus-free scion wood
due to its virus hypersensitivity
Geneva 41 Fire-blight resistant and producing a tree similar to EMLA 9 but with
better productivity.
Geneva 202
Reportedly very fire-blight resistant and highly resistant to wooly apple
aphid. Reported to
produce a tree similar in size to EMLA26.
Geneva 210 Resistant to woolly apple aphid and highly resistant to fire blight.
Tolerant to replant
disease complex and crown and root rot.
Geneva 214 Resistant to woolly apple aphid and highly resistant to fire blight.
Tolerant to replant
disease complex and crown and root rot. Yield efficiency better than
M.9.

21. Apple Rootstock Improvement:
Efforts to develop improved apple rootstocks have led to rootstock
breeding programs in:
 United States (CG, MAC, OAR, Ark and MN series)
 Canada (KSC, Ottawa, Vineland series)
 The United Kingdom (M, MI, MM, and AR series),
 Germany (J9 and Pillnitzer-Supporter series),
 Sweden (Alnarp, BM series and Bemali),
 Russia (Budagovskij series),
 Poland (Pseries),
 the Czech Republic (JT-E series,
 Israel (MH series),
 Romania (Voinesti series)
 Japan (JM series).

22. Objectives of Rootstock Breeding
Attribute Minimum
standard
Ideal
standard
Essential
Resistant to Erwinia amylovora (fireblight) M.7 R5
Resistant to Phytophthora spp. (crown rot) M.9 Bud.9
Readily propagable MM.106 A.2
Liners smooth, relatively free of spines MM.106 O.3
Liners thrifty in nursery row; easily buddable MM.106 A.2
Induce heavy, early fruit production MM.106 M.9
Early hardening of scion and collar M.2 M.9
Tolerant to low midwinter temperatures MM.111 A.2
Late-leafing in early spring M.9 K-14
Free of burrknots M.2 Hibernal
Reacting to TmRSV as does Induce no more
scion susceptibility
to E. amylovorathan
M.7 Delicious
M.7

23. Cont….
Important
Resistant to woolly apple aphids MM.111 R5
Roots structurally strong (not brittle) M.26 M.7
Well anchored M.7 M.111
Few or no suckers in orchard MM.106 Hibernal
Inducing early maturation of fruit M.2 M.9
Resistant to pine voles R5 Novole
Hardy to very low temperatures in midwinter Tolerant
of chlorotic leaf spot, apple stem
M.26 R5
grooving, and apple stem pitting viruses M.9 M.9
Helpful
Leaves red or otherwise distinctive Bud.9;O.3
Moderately resistant to Venturi inaequalis M.7
Moderately resistant to Podosphaera leucotricha M.9
Resistant to meadow vole Sugar Crab
Special Objectives
Tree size control: full range, from dwarfing M.9
through vigorous Alnarp 2
Some stocks tolerant of poorly drained soils M.13
Some stocks tolerant of drought MM.111

24. Floral Biology:-
• Fruit buds of apple are mixed, borne terminally on
fruiting spurs and terminally or laterally on long
shoots depending upon cultivars.
• Flowers vary in size, petal shape and colour from
white to deep pink.
• Number of sepals and petals are same in different
cultivars but number of stamens varied.
• Pistil is composed of stigma, style and ovary. The
stigma is wet type and stigmatic papillae lose their
turgidity 2-3 days after bloom.
• The rates as well as time of anthesis between 6 am
and 6 pm with gradual increase up to 12 noon.
• Maximum opening of flowers between 12 noon and 2
pm in some low chilling apple cultivars.

26. Flower parts may mature at different times—promotes
cross- fertilization (vigor in the big scheme)
 Malus spp.– apples and crab apples
 5 ovaries need multiple visits, generally proterogynous (pollen is
shed after stigma is no longer receptive--prevents self-fertilization)
apple flowers
&andrenid bee
ovaries

27. Dr. Fell* recommends 1 to 2 honey bee colonies/acre for tree fruit
(~1 to 3 are recommended for berries)
http://freedomtreefarms.com/chart
s/cherry/
 Some self-sterile, cross-
incompatible, or low
sugar nectar crops need
more colonies
 Red Delicious apples,
plums, pears
* Dr. Richard Fell is the
Apiculture Extension
Agent at VirginiaTech

29. Genetics of important traits and their inheritance
pattern:-
Traits Type of Inheritance
Powdery mildew Single major genes PL1 and PL2.
Wooly apple aphid M. hupehensis has reported to transmit
resistance
Codling moth Resistance is incorporated from M. zumi
Compact growth habit Polygenic
Cold hardiness Polygenic
Fruit colour Three independent genes A, B and C
Yellow color Dominant gene
Red color Any two dominant genes
Green Recessive gene
Cream yellow flesh color Single dominant gene

30. Methods of Crop Improvement
• Introduction
• Selection
• Hybridisation
• Mutation
• Biotechnology

31. Introduction
Apples are introduced for different purpose such as :
a) spur type cultivar - At regional research station , Mashobra (H.P),
12 varieties are introduced through NBPGR New Delhi in 1980
Red spur delicious, Golden spur delicious, Oregon spur.
b) Colour spots – Royal red , Vance delicious.
Top red, Skyline supreme, Red Delicious

32. c) Low chilling variety – Introduced through NBPGR to RRS ,
Phagi , Shimla Vared, Michael , Tropical beauty, Parlin beauty,
Mayan, Schlomit, Hybrid-1
d) Scab resistant var – Prima , Priscilla , Liberty, Florina, Macfree,
Freedom, Coop-12
d) Early maturing var – Yandik onskoe , Papisonka canninga

33. Selection
• In Horticultural Experimental Station (TNAU) in Kodaikanal selected 1
variety i,e KKL-1 called as Kodaikanal beauty , this is a selection from
Parlin beauty
• Many of existing commercial cv which originated as chance
seedlings are Golden Delicious , Baldwin and Granny Smith

34. Hybridization:-
Apple improvement work has been going on
a) The Regional Fruit Research Station , Mashobra, H.P
b) F.R.S. , Shalimar, J and K
c) Horticulture and Experimental Training centre , Chaubattia , U.P
Hybrids Parents
Lal Ambri (high dessert quality
with good keeping quality)
(Red Delicious x Ambri)
Agold (high dessert quality with
good keeping quality)
(Ambri x Golden Delicious)
Ambred (keeping quality is good) (Red Delicious x Ambri 157)
Ambstarking (tolerant to apple
scab.)
(Starking Delicious x Ambri 81)
Ambroyal ( good dessert quality) (Starking Delicious x Ambri 84)
Ambrich (tolerant to apple scab) (Richard x Ambri 15)
Chaubattia Princess Red Delicious x Early Shanburry.
Chaubattia Anupam Red Delicious x Early Shanburry.

36. Mutation
 A bud sport is a mutation arising in a cell from which a bud
developed
 It affects growth habit particularly the spur or compact type
which produce compact or dwarfish
 This is the basis for bud selection to maintain the integrity of
the cultivar
 The rate of single gene mutations can be increased by
irradiation with X- ray, Gamma ray and thermal neutrons
 Bud sport – due to mutation , Red allister/ Aed Elster
,natural mutant of allister

37. • Vance Delicious : Bud mutant of Delicious.
• Top Red : Bud sport of Shot Well Delicious
• Skyline Supreme Delicious : Bud mutant of Starking Delicious.
• Gold Spur Delicious : Bud mutant of Golden Delicious. This
variety is recommended as pollinizer for all spur types.
• Red Spur Delicious : It is a variant tree in Starking Delicious
orchard.
• Red Chief : Bud sport of Delicious

38. Sterility and Incompatibility
 These are the two main causes of unfruitfulness in
apple
 Apples has Gametophytic incompatibility whereby the pollen
tube growth is arrested in the style
 Variety like Cox’s orange pippin , Golden russet and Northern
spy

39. Apomixis
 Facultative apomixis is characteristic of a number
of Malus spp that are probably of hybrid origin,
but does not appear to occur among the cultivated
apple
CULTIVARS PLOIDY LEVEL
M. sikkimensis triplod
M. sargentii tetraploid
M. Coronaria , M.
hupehensis, M. lancefolia, M.
toringoides
Triplod, tetraploid
M. sieboldii Diploid, triploid, tetraploid, pentaploid

40. Biotechnology
 Protoplast culture – M9 and Sparten
 Moleculars markers – Rome Beauty cross with
White Angel using RAPD
 Transformation – Greensleeves , Royal Gala
, etc

41. COE Red Fuji, Spartan Granny Smith, Ginger Gold, Early Red One, Law
Red Rome, Scarlet Spur, Florina, Scarlet Gala, Summer Queen, Red Fuji
CITH-Lodh-Selection:
SOURCEhttp://www.cith.org.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=49&Itemi
d=26&lang=en
Important varieties added in field germplasm (CITH)

42. •Lal Ambri (Red Delicious x Ambri)
•Sunehari (Ambri x Golden Delicious)
•Chaubattia Anupam (Early Shanburry x Red Delicious)
•Ambred (Red Delicious x Ambri),
• Ambrich (Richared x Ambri),
•Ambroyal (Starking Delicious x Ambri)
Institute Released High Yielding and Superior Quality Apple
Varieties released by CITH

43. Popular Apple Varieties Grown in India:-
• Granny Smith:-
Granny Smith Apples are
distinctive bright green. They
are good for cakes, pies,
pastries, or eating fresh. They
are crunchy and crisp with a
flavorful taste.
• Pink Lady Apple:-
Pink Lady Apple is a cross
between Golden Delicious
and Lady Williams. They
have pink skin and have a
sweet-tart taste which is
delicious.

44. • Cameo Apple:-
It is thought to come from both
Red and Yellow Delicious
Apples Cameo Apples were
originated in Washington and
have quickly grown popularity.
• Opal Apple:-
Opal Apples are medium sized
apples having yellow skin with
russeting at the stem.

45. • Gala Apple:-
Gala Apple has yellow skin
with pink to red stripes. The
shape of Gala apples is
similar to Golden and Red
Delicious Apples.
• Honey crisp Apple:-
Honey crisp Apple was
developed by the University
of Minnesota for growers in
cold climate.

46. • Fuji Apple:-
It is a cross between Red
Delicious and Ralls Janet.
Fuji Apple has light green
skin with reddish orange
colour. This firm fruit
makes for an excellent
snack.
• McIntosh Apple:-
McIntosh Apple has a blend
of green, red, and golden
white skin. The crispy and
tart flavour of these apples
is enjoyed when fresh.

47. • Red Delicious Apple:-
Red Delicious Apple has red
skin with white flecks. They
are big, crispy, and have a
juicy and sweet flavour.
• Jazz Apple:-
Jazz Apples are sweet, juicy,
and tangy apples from New
Zealand.
• Ambrosia Apple:-
It was discovered as a chance
seedling in an orchard in
British Columbia.

48. • Yellow(Golden)Delicious:-
Yellow Delicious is a mild,
sweet apple having a bright
yellow skin. They have a
juicy flesh and taste similar
to Red Delicious Apples.
• Empire Apple:-
Empire Apple is a cross
between McIntosh and Red
Delicious varieties in spite of
having thin skin.